Inflammation, Immunity & Schizophrenia: Implications for Pathophysiology & Treatment - Essay Sample

Khandaker, G. M., Cousins, L., Deakin, J., Lennox, B. R., Yolken, R., & Jones, P. B. (2015). Inflammation and immunity in schizophrenia: implications for pathophysiology and treatment. The Lancet Psychiatry, 2(3), 258-270.

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Khandiker et al. (2015) highlight significant interaction and implications of the immune system and the brain in relation to the etiology and therapeutic impact of neurologic disorders. The research draws from the existing relationship between the immune system schizophrenia derived from genetic and epidemiological studies that point at infections and inflammation. Khandiker et al. (2015) note the complex interactions between the systemic inflammation, immune system, and the brain can lead to changes in behavior, mood alterations, and cognition. The research describes important relations in innate and adaptive immune responses and psychotic disorders associated with schizophrenia. The study indicates the immune system and the infections contribute to psychosis with schizophrenia linked to abnormalities in both innate and adaptive immune components of the body.

Kraus, C., Castrén, E., Kasper, S., & Lanzenberger, R. (2017). Serotonin and neuroplasticity–links between molecular, functional, and structural pathophysiology in depression. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 77, 317-326.

The author evaluates the effects of serotonin neuroplasticity at young ages and the influence of body immunity on depression. Serotonin reuptake inhibitors reactivate Juvenile-like neuroplasticity. Previous studies indicated a lack of a clear connection between study findings and the treatment of major depressive disorders. Therefore, the author establishes the relationship between preclinical and clinical work linking the pathophysiology of serotonin and neuroplasty to depression. The author highlights that dysfunctions in plasticity development affect old age's cognitive and emotional functionality, altering the levels of synaptic serotonin. Fluctuations in the receptor levels of serotonin and the synaptic serotonin result in the alteration of neurogenesis as well as synaptic plasticity. According to the author, a disease state reduction in grey matter indicate neuroplasticity, while treatment with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor reflected in significant reversibility in the degeneration of grey matter. Magnetic resonance imaging hint at reduced neuron densities and sizes as well as reduced volumes of hippocampal in depressive patients. According to the author, serotonergic neuroplasticity is linked to the reduction in neurons and hippocampal. The author connects neurodevelopmental disorders to the malfunctions in the developmental stage of plasticity that results in the reduction (dystrophic) serotonergic neurons.

Stone-Brown, K., Naji, M., Francioni, A., Myers, K., Samarendra, H., Mushtaq-Chaudhry, H... & Das, M. (2016). Psychotropic prescribing in seriously violent men with schizophrenia or personality disorder in a UK high-security hospital. CNS spectrums, 21(1), 60-69.

Steve-Stone (2016) focused on analyzing the prescription patterns in High-security hospitals in the UK in the treatment of violent men with schizophrenia or personality disorders. The study analyzed data from hospital databases using SPSS deriving the prescription patterns. The author examined the variations in consent to treatment between the two groups as well as a prescription for metabolic conditions. The author hypothesized an increased antipsychotic prevalence and high description of antipsychotics and clozapine. According to Steve-Stone (2016), data on prescription patterns in highly violent and mentally disordered clients is limited, necessitating extensive research. Data obtained was categorized based on the disorder with the study findings indicating the treatment of the diseases with more than one antipsychotic while some were on clozapine. Statins, antidiabetics, and antihypertensives were prescribed along with clozapine.

Part II: The Introduction Paragraph

The concept of psychological disorders and therapy has been addressed by various research studies, including reviews of articles, among other areas of research studies. Some of the central research studies that have focused on the topic include inflammations and immunity in schizophrenia; implications for pathophysiology, research that address serotonin and neuroplasticity, which address links between molecular and structural pathophysiology in depression, and psychotropic prescribing in seriously violent men with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is one of the mental or psychological disorders discussed in these articles, including therapies that drive the concept to the real point of interest, psychological disorders, and treatment. Psychological disorders and therapy are well understood, and approaches, including management, identified once the basis of the immune system in pathogenesis is learned. Therapy and psychological disorders, including implications, are drawn after fully understanding components of the innate immune response. Some of the main components to focus on include cytokines and microglia, which include inflammatory cytokines and T-lymphocytes, among other areas of interest. The essay broadly analyses psychological disorders and therapy by discussing essential areas of schizophrenia concerning physiology and treatment of the condition by reflecting on articles of interest.

Part III: The (Brief) Outline

As earlier introduced, psychological disorders and therapy are established on the concept of the physiology of the central nervous system to the immune system as connected to the psychological disease of interest. Khandiker et al. (2015) highlight one of the mental disorders, schizophrenia, and suggests various therapies related to implications that may help manage the condition. It also examines several sections and factors of the immune system, which focuses on the psychological disorder of interest to understand the pathophysiology, thus the therapy. It is crucial to learn the abnormalities that the disorder presents from the normal functioning of the immune system to understand and identify implications. Khandiker et al. (2015) point out that abnormalities seen in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia are diverse and include essential elements of the immune system, which include cytokines and microglia. During the onset of schizophrenia and alongside the state of the condition, the inflammatory of cytokines and other abnormalities is presented, marking or examining the area of interest, which is a psychological disorder.

In the context of therapy, Khandiker et al. (2015) present a series of therapeutic implications of schizophrenia in the case of an immunological understanding of the condition. Therapeutic implication relies on the ability to understand the relationship between the state and the immune system, which may provide detection, treatment, and prevention approaches. The article shares anti-inflammatory agents in the treatment of schizophrenia and related psychosis that act as one of the therapeutic implications.

Kraus et al., 2017also address or examines psychological disorders and therapy as the point of interest by examining the effects of serotonin and, more importantly, the influence of body immunity on depression. As addressed in the article, mechanisms of neuroplasticity and their importance in the pathophysiology of depression demonstrate or share essential information about psychological disorders and understanding of a specified therapy. The connection between neurodevelopment disorders and malfunctions in the developmental stage of plasticity presented in the article explains the physiology of psychological disorders. It leads to malfunctioning of various organs within the system as the state results in a reduction of serotonergic neurons, which in most cases, are involved in sleep-wakefulness cycles. With alterations, there is always an implication of psychological disorders.

In the context of therapy, molecular connections between serotonin and neuroplasticity have been examined as an approach that reflects on antidepressant therapy. The molecular relationship between different types of neuroplasticity is well established and provides a series of procedures where therapy relies upon. According to Kraus et al., 2017, most of the serotonin’s links with neutrophils demonstrate a close reciprocal connection between BDNF and 5- HT, which form an essential part of the therapy. BDNF administration to specified culture growth has indicated a positive impact of move where serotonergic neurons, among other critical factors, increases. It is one of the implications of a therapeutic approach that may help manage psychological disorders.

Steve-Stone (2016) also addresses or examines psychological disorders and therapy by focusing on analyzing the prescription pattern in the treatment of violent men diagnosed with schizophrenia or other categories of personality disorders. In the case of this article, the author is a centralized therapeutic approach of managing patients with schizophrenia or other personality disorders by examining typical antipsychotics, which provide appropriate implications. Some of the notable primary antipsychotics addressed include Benperidol and Flupentixol, among different categories of common antipsychotics. The main focus was the treatment pattern of the psychological disorder, including the numbers of antipsychotics employed. Treatment pattern with various antipsychotics sounds a better approach to managing antipsychotic conditions.

Conclusion

To sum up, the essay addresses psychological disorders and therapy by examining three articles. Khandiker, in the first article, discusses the interactions and implications of the immune system and the central nervous system about the therapeutic impact of neurological disorders. The relationship exists between schizophrenia, and the immune system helps in understanding inflammations and other abnormalities, which aids in therapeutic implications. The use of antipsychotics in the management of schizophrenia as one of the treatment approaches indicates a positive move.

References

Khandaker, G. M., Cousins, L., Deakin, J., Lennox, B. R., Yolken, R., & Jones, P. B. (2015). Inflammation and immunity in schizophrenia: implications for pathophysiology and treatment. The Lancet Psychiatry, 2(3), 258-270. https://helda.helsinki.fi//bitstream/handle/10138/236227/Serotonin_and_neuroplasticity.pdf?sequence=1

Kraus, C., Castrén, E., Kasper, S., & Lanzenberger, R. (2017). Serotonin and neuroplasticity–links between molecular, functional, and structural pathophysiology in depression. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 77, 317-326. https://helda.helsinki.fi//bitstream/handle/10138/236227/Serotonin_and_neuroplasticity.pdf?sequence=1

Stone-Brown, K., Naji, M., Francioni, A., Myers, K., Samarendra, H., Mushtaq-Chaudhry, H., ... & Das, M. (2016). Psychotropic prescribing in seriously violent men with schizophrenia or personality disorder in a UK high-security hospital. CNS spectrums, 21(1), 60-69. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Callum_Ross/publication/289245068_Psychotropic_prescribing_in_seriously_violent_men_with_schizophrenia_or_personality_disorder_in_a_UK_high_security_hospital/links/5d76cb3ca6fdcc9961bc99b7/Psychotropic-prescribing-in-seriously-violent-men-with-schizophrenia-or-personality-disorder-in-a-UK-high-security-hospital.pdf