Uncovering the Causes and Risk Factors of Alzheimer's Disease - Annotated Bibliography

"Alzheimer's Association" (2020). The causes and risk factors of Alzheimer's disease. Alz.org. https://www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/what-is-alzheimers/causes-and-risk-factors

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The Alzheimer's Association is a non-profit American association that focuses on the care, support, and research on Alzheimer's disease. In this article, the association provides insights into the causes and risk factors of Alzheimer's disease. According to the "Alzheimer's Association" (2020), there is not a single cause of Alzheimer's disease. The disorder is estimated to develop from multiple factors the resonate around genetics, lifestyle, and the environment. Some of the highlighted risk factors that scientists believe increase the risk of Alzheimer's include age, heredity, and family history which cannot be changed.

Increasing age is the greatest risk factor for Alzheimer's with most of the individuals with the disorder being 65 years and older. According to the "Alzheimer's Association" (2020), the risk of Alzheimer's doubles every five years, and reaches nearly one-third after age 85. Family history is also a strong risk factor with the risk one developing increasing when a family member has the illness. Moreover, genetics, environmental factors, or both may play a role when diseases run in families. Developing the disorder is also tied to genetic influence, with the two major genetic influences being the deterministic genes and the risk genes. The genes for Alzheimer's are found in both categories ("Alzheimer's Association," 2020). However, the authors believe that there is a less than one percent probability of Alzheimer's cases being caused by deterministic genes. Other risk factors highlighted by the article that may influence the development of Alzheimer's include head-injury brought by traumatic brain injuries, and heart-head connections. The artilce contributes to my topic by analyzing the causes and risk factors of Alzheimer's disease.

Nurgroschl, J. & Wang, S. (2012). Alzheimer's disease: Diagnosis and treatment across the spectrum of disease severity. Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 78(4):596-612. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3315348/

Neugroschl and Wang (2012) provide an analysis of Alzheimer's disease with a specific focus on its diagnosis and treatment across the spectrum of the severity of the disease. The article uses a case illustration to review the evaluation and diagnose mild cognitive impairments with a management scheme for the disease at each stage, from its cognitive and behavioral aspects to the end-stage and end-of-life care processes. According to Neugroschl and Wang (2012), Alzheimer's disease is the most prevalent type of dementia that accounts for approximately 60-80% of all the diagnosed dementias. The number is, however, expected to rise due to the marked increase in the ages or baby boomers, and the percentage of the population that is aged above 85 years. In line with the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV, they argue that Alzheimer's disease requires a new onset of memory impairment, cognitive disturbance, i.e., apraxia, agnosia, aphasia, and executive functioning, and a gradual, progressive course that would result in significant impairments in one's general functioning.

The article also addresses the management practices of early-stage Alzheimer's disease by the use of the AChE inhibitors class of medications. It contributes to my topic by providing a diagnosis, management, and treatment of AD and other dementias together with their neuropsychiatric effects may present significant challenges for the families, patients, and clinicians among others. The loss of memory and proper functioning which are vital aspects of independence and self-identity and lack of effective disease modification structures for dementia may make it cumbersome for discussions on diagnosis and management of the disorder. The article provides a solution to these fears by implementing straightforward, compassionate dialogue processes and increased collaboration between the team of providers, and the patient's support network.

Reisberg, B. (2020). Clinical stages of Alzheimer's. Fisher Center for Alzheimer's Research Foundation. https://www.alzinfo.org/understand-alzheimers/clinical-stages-of-alzheimers/

The article analyzes the various clinical stages of Alzheimer's. The seven Clinical Stages of Alzheimer's also referred to as the Global Deterioration Scale (GDS) provide a guideline for professionals and caregivers around the globe to understand the stage of the disease that the patient is in. According to Reisberg (2020), stages, 1-3 are the pre-dementia stages while stages 4-7 are the dementia stages. Stage 5 represents an individual who cannot survive without assistance. These stages include Stage 1 where the patient is normal and does not display any signs of Alzheimer's; Stage 2 which represents normal aged forgetfulness; Stage 3 where one presents mild cognitive impairment; Stage 4 which presents symptoms of mild Alzheimer's disease; Stage 5 which presents moderate Alzheimer's disease; Stage 6 with moderately severe Alzheimer's disease; and Stage 7 with severe Alzheimer's disease.

According to Reisberg (2020), the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease can be made with proper accuracy in Stage 4 since at this stage, the patient begins to showcase decreased ability to manage the instrumental or complex daily-life activities such as their ability to manage finances, market oneself, and prepare meals for guests among others. The patients in Stage 7 require continuous assistance with doing their basic activities in life for survival. However, with appropriate life support and care, patients can survive the final stages of Alzheimer's disease for years. The article contributes to my topic by highlighting the vital clinical stages of Alzheimer's.

Ulep M. et al. (2018). Alzheimer's Disease. The Journal for Nurse practitioners. 14(3): 129-135. https://www.npjournal.org/article/S1555-4155(17)30819-X/fulltext

The article provides an overview of Alzheimer's disease by analyzing various aspects of the disorder, i.e., its etiology and risk factors, pathogenesis, diagnostic criteria, assessments to the diagnosis, and management among others. According to Ulep et al. (2017), Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that negatively affects one's cognition and behavior, and has a clinical duration of approximately 8-10 years. The authors argue that the risk of developing AD is multifactorial with the preventable risk factors including hypertension, type 2 diabetes, sedentary lifestyle, smoking, head-injury, and obesity. Moreover, the nonpreventable risk factors include age and genetics. To properly diagnose AD, the authors believe that the available symptoms must meet the criteria for dementia, the onset should be insidious with a gradual progression, i.e., taking several months or years, existing evidence of a cognitive worsening by a report of observation, and clear initial symptoms that can either be amnestic or non-amnestic. The assessment and diagnostic processes enlisted by Ulep et al. (2017) include a history of the present illness and pertinent systems review, cognitive screening, physical examination, neuropsychological testing, laboratory studies, and the use of biomarkers.

According to Ulep et al. (2017), supportive care provides the mainstay for the treatment of AD since there are currently no disease-modifying agents present. It is, therefore, vital to educate caregivers, regarding the disease process, potential changes that lie ahead, safety processes, and efficient treatment goals. The article documents the tremendous effects of AD on caregivers, by looking at the physical, emotional, mental, and social implications of the disorder on them. In this case, caregivers are advised to identify vital resources such as support groups, social work consultations, respite care options, and services that are provided by the local Alzheimer's Associations. The article contributes to my topic by providing an overview of Alzheimer's disease on the various aspects of the disorder, i.e., its etiology and risk factors, pathogenesis, diagnostic criteria, assessments to the diagnosis, and management among others.