Report Example on Cancer: Cellular Changes and Apoptosis

Introduction

Cancer is a disease that occurs when cellular changes contribute to out-of-control cell growth and division. In most cases, cells detect and mend the damage of the DNA. However, repair becomes difficult if this damage is severe, and the cell undergoes apoptosis (David, 2016). Technically, this is where it damaged cells abnormally grows and divides in an organ, leading to tumors. The process of a cancer cell growing, splitting, and spreading to another tissue or organ is called metastasis. For instance, if a cell with breast cancer divides and extends to a nearing bone, it is termed to have metastatic breast cancer (David, 2016). The genetic or cellular changes resulting in cancer affect the proto-oncogenes, the genes for repairing DNA, and tumor suppressors. When proto-oncogenes are altered to operate more actively, they give room for cancerous cells' growth and survival (David, 2016). Genes responsible for suppressing tumor and controlling cell division and growth may be altered to allow uncontrolled cell division. Genes in repairing DNA may allow cells to establish more mutations, thus increase the chances of cells becoming cancerous.

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Cancerous cells may spread to nearing tissue or lymph nodes, then invading other organs, therefore developing metastatic tumors. Therefore, as blood circulates, cancer spreads to the rest of the body (David, 2016). Cancer also affects the lymphatic system in which cells battle and eliminates damaged cells. However, these cells may accumulate in one of the nodes when they separate from the tumor. In the lymphatic system, cancer can also start and spread from the spleen and tonsils.

Etiology and Risk Factors of Cancer

Cancer may result from genetic issues, infections, age, gender, race, unhealthy living, environmental factors like radiation and pollution, and any other factor that may cause any cell abnormality. One of the leading causes of cancer is exposure to toxic chemicals like tobacco, benzene, nickel, and asbestos. Ionizing radiation like sun ultraviolet rays and radiation are other causes of cancer (David, 2016). Often, radiation-based treatments like chemotherapy and x-rays damage cells, thus exposing a patient to a greater probability of contracting secondary cancer. Also, genes have been connected to cancer development, such as skin, ovarian, and breast cancer.

It is essential to note that each individual is exposed to risk factors linked to cancer development. Genetic mutations like BRCA1 and BRCA2, which have a high probability of causing ovarian and breast cancer, are likely to hinder DNA repair (David, 2016). These genes may be genetically passed through generations, thus increasing the risk of genetically inheriting cancer. Environmental perils like exposure to ultraviolet radiation and air pollution may increase the potentiality of cancer. Microbes also expand the risks of developing cancer. For example, H-Pylori bacteria, which contribute to stomach ulcers, cause gastric cancer, whereas viral infections like HPV also lead to cancer (David, 2016). An unhealthy lifestyle like obesity, smoking tobacco, excessive alcohol consumption, and inactivity poses a more significant threat to contracting cancer.

Symptoms of Cancer and Clinical Manifestations

Symptoms of cancer depend on the location and size of cancer, and in most cases, each cancer type has distinctive symptoms. However, general symptoms consist of pain, fever, fatigue, skin changes, and uncontrolled weight loss and gain (National Cancer Institute, 2019). Some most specific symptoms are changes in breasts like lumps, nipple discharge, and itchy skin; Bladder changes including urination pains and blood discharge in urine; Changes in bowel like blood discharge in stool; coughing, eating issues like pain when swallowing, nausea, and change in appetite, heartburn problems; headaches, vision issues; lumps and tumors (National Cancer Institute, 2019).

A cancer diagnosis is not news that is well received; hence sometimes, family members tend not to let doctors tell patients about it. However, being open about the diseases provides room for psychological acceptance and proper planning on participating actively in medication. Professionals must prepare patients ahead of time of possible diagnosis and deliver the news carefully yet accurately as they monitor patients' emotional reactions (Underwood, 2020). Denial could be a symptom exhibited by some patients, although the information sinks in with time. One needs to receive such news with a family member to feel a sense of support.

Physiological Effects of Cancer

Like any other disease, cancer has its effects on the patient, family, and friends. It is a life-changing experience that brings with it feelings of anxiety, stress, and depression. Patients feel uncomfortable and worried as they feel as if they are not assured of tomorrow. Further, there come feelings of unpleasant emotions, thoughts, and behavior that, if not attended to at an early age, they may get worse (Palacio et al., 2018). When people are diagnosed with cancer, almost everything changes in their lives, including their homes and society's roles. As a result, people must remain observant and present themselves for medical assistance to prevent or instead maintain the changes that come with the disease.

Generally, cancer affects the emotional, social, and physical well-being of the family. As the patient response with distress and disruptions, so does the family respond with feelings of loss of control and even to the extreme of altered relationships? There is a complete change in terms of normal personality with some patients and feel a sense of vulnerability that comes with the fact that they have to have special diets, a caregiver, not forgetting the stress they undergo when they think of financial burdens that are ahead of them (Palacio et al., 2018). Patients often feel the unpreparedness and unfamiliarity if getting into the next phase of treatment, which could slow responsiveness to medication leading to protracted hospitalization.

Cancer Progression

Unregulated cell division causes cancer. When cells of specific genes are affected, they tend to behave abnormally, ranging from cell-division when not supposed to and vice versa, and failure to die when they are supposed to. As a result, there is the release of growth factors and enzymes hence changes in DNA mutations. Initiators are altered if they have not already reacted with DNA leading to permanent genetic change (Underwood, 2020). The transformation will be progressive through any daughter cells produced hence promoting cell proliferation. Specific and non-specific promoters are responsible for cell proliferation as they interact with receptors in target cells or alter gene expression without the presence of a known receptor.

The growth of a tumor is progressive, resulting from altered cells. Due to their uncontrollable division, they settle excessively on a given tissue presenting a normal appearance. Continuous genetic changes caused by promoters bring about irreversible changes and lead to increasingly abnormal growth. Further, the cells start to regress and become more primitive in their capabilities (Underwood, 2020). At this point, tumor cells also appear abnormal as they contain altered cells and begin to grow larger despite having not left the origin. Progressively, it starts to invade nearby and distant tissues. Cell division caused by viruses is a direct source of cancer among chronic inflammation and other possible causes.

Body System Affected

Cancer alters and affects the functioning of significant body systems ranging from blockage of channels to pressing on body tissues (Boise & Shanmugam, 2019). Bodies are built with the lymphatic system, helping with trapping and destroying cancer cells and other harmful organisms. There is usually a high risk of cancer growth when cancer cells are trapped in the lymph nodes close to cancer. Cancer treatments weaken the immune system and can sometimes change hormone levels. The immune system is very vital to cancer patients since both cancer as well as treatment options may make the system weak, and it may critically assist in fighting the disease. Often, chemotherapies are associated with abnormalities in brain structure and function for non-central nervous system cancers.

Cancer Treatment

There are various treatments of cancer based on the type and stage of cancer one has. Some patients have several treatment options, while others have just one. The most common treatment options for cancer are chemotherapy, where drugs are used to fight and kill cancerous cells, and radiation therapy, which employs radiation in shrinking tumors and destroys damaged cancerous cells. Radiation therapy can be in the form of external and internal beam radiation. Mostly it is applied prostate and breast cancer treatment (National Cancer Institute, 2019). Other treatments include surgery to remove cancerous tissues from the body, immunotherapy to boost the immune system to help fight the disease, hormone therapy used mostly to slow and finally treat the spread of breast cancer, and targeted therapy (National Cancer Institute, 2019). However, cancer treatment may contribute to some side effects like loss of appetite, constipation, diarrhea, anemia, fatigue, hair loss, lymphedema, nausea, throat pains, uncontrolled bleeding, and edema. Specifically, radiation therapy may cause a secondary type of cancer when excessively used on a patient. On the other hand, chemotherapy may also slow destroy healthy cells like mouth tissue cells, consequently leading to nausea and sores in the mouth.

Prognosis

Prognosis estimates how cancer may progress in a patient and may range from good to bad, depending on cancer type and stage. Other factors that may impact prognosis is the degree of abnormalities in the cancerous cells, the patient's age, and the disease's response to treatment (David, 2016). As the cancer cells progressively spread or become metastatic, the prognosis reduces. For instance, increased cancer numbers worsen the prognosis at a particular stage compared to those with reduced numbers (David, 2016). Therefore, the increase in stage numbers deteriorates the prognosis, thus reducing the rate of survival. In general, cancer life expectancy decreases with reduced prognosis.

Concurrent Diseases

The common complication and secondary diseases contributed by cancer are infections. Both the disease (cancer) and its treatment may make the immune system weak, thus allowing the spread of infections throughout the body. These infections can be bacterial, viral, and fungal. The infections mostly affect the skin, lungs, digestive, urinary, and nervous systems (American Cancer Society, 2020). The main factors that may contribute to these infections are cancer treatment programs like radiotherapy and chemotherapy, a steroid medication that weakens the immune system, malnutrition, microsites, and some cancer types.

Conclusion

With cancer's presence comes the need for ongoing research to devise ways in which cancer care can be improved to see through the well-being of a patient and overall health. Clinical research studies can play a massive role in expanding the treatment for people with all types of cancer in light of diagnosis, prevention, and cancer treatment (Boise & Shanmugam, 2019). During clinical trials, doctors and researchers monitor patients closely throughout the treatment to determine the drug's effectiveness and, most importantly, if it is safe for cancer patients. When research is done, people can understand metastasis.