Malaria Epidemiology in Kenya and Tanzania Annotated Bibliography

Introduction

Malaria is a disease caused by Plasmodium species types of protozoan parasites (Lilley, Snyder, & Collins, 2016). The disease is transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes. The most common types of Anopheles mosquitoes in Africa include Anopheles arabiensis, Anopheles funestus, and Anopheles gambiae sensu strict. Even though malaria problem has been found to be on the decline in Africa, there still exists uncertainty around reported estimates. These uncertainties are linked to reports of stable rates of malaria and, in other cases, increased cases of malaria in some areas (Nkumama, O'Meara, & Osier, 2017).

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The prevalence of malaria in Africa has been established to be high (Moukam Kakmeni et al., 2018). According to the World Health Organization (2018), there were 445, 000 malarial deaths in Africa in 2016 and 446,000 malaria deaths in 2015. About 91% of malaria-related deaths are found in Africa. However, less is known regarding the prevalence of malaria in each of the African countries. Consequently, there is a need to examine the epidemiology of malaria in Kenya and Tanzania.

Sultana, M., Sheikh, N., Mahumud, R. A., Jahir, T., Islam, Z., & Sarker, A. R. (2017). Prevalence and associated determinants of malaria parasites among Kenyan children. Tropical Medicine and Health, 45(1), 25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-017-0066-5

Sultana et al. (2017) conducted a cross-sectional country representative survey aimed at determining the prevalence of malaria in Kenya and its association with demographic, socioeconomic, community-based, and behavioral factors. The methodological approach used in this study involved analysis of secondary data obtained from the 2015 Kenya Malaria Indicator Survey. The findings of this stud revealed that the prevalence of malaria increased with increase in age from 6-month to 18-month old children. The highest incidence of malaria was found among children aged 11-14 years. Prevalence of malaria was also reported to be higher in rural children than in their urban counterparts. Another socio-demographic variable associated with high prevalence of malaria include socio-economic status. There were higher rates of malaria among poor children than their counterparts from wealthy backgrounds. Other factors linked to higher prevalence of malaria infection in children aged 11 -14 years compared to other age groups include the low educational level of the household head, and failure to use mosquito nets in the households. This article will be used to explain the factors associated with high prevalence of malaria in Kenya.

Idris, Z. M., Chan, C. W., Kongere, J., Gitaka, J., Logedi, J., Omar, A., ... Kaneko, A. (2016). High and heterogeneous prevalence of asymptomatic and sub-microscopic malaria infections on islands in Lake Victoria, Kenya. Scientific Reports, 6, 36958. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep36958

Idris et al. (2016) was aimed at investigating the distribution and prevalence of malaria infection in Lake Victoria islands of Kenya and was aimed at coming up with new ways of eliminating malaria. The methodological approaches used in this study comprised of five cross-sectional surveys conducted in four Islands of Lake Victoria. Findings of this study revealed that "Of the 3867 malaria infections detected by PCR, 91.8% were asymptomatic, 50.3% were sub-microscopic, of which 94% were also asymptomatic." The prevalence of malaria was also found to vary across different geographical regions. Out of the four islands surveyed for the study, Ngodhe, Kibuogi, Takawiri, and Mfangano, most of the malaria incidences was found in Ungoye, followed by Mfangano while the other islands had a low prevalence of the disease. This study is useful in the further exploration of the factors linked to geographical differences of malaria, especially within the same country.

Gimnig, J. E., Otieno, P., Were, V., Marwanga, D., Abong'o, D., Wiegand, R., ... Hamel, M. J. (2016). The effect of indoor residual spraying on the prevalence of malaria parasite infection, clinical malaria and anemia in an area of perennial transmission and moderate coverage of insecticide treated nets in Western Kenya. PLOS ONE, 11(1), e0145282. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145282

Gimnig et al. (2016) were aimed at evaluating the impact of an indoor residual spraying program on malaria-related outcomes in western Kenya, a region known for high prevalence of malaria transmission and moderate use of mosquito nets. The methodological approach of this study involved surveys. The primary outcomes of interest in this study history of fever and falciparum infection and anemia. These outcomes were assessed in residents found in areas that implemented an indoor residual spraying program. In each of the surveys, participants from the districts with indoor residual spraying program were matched to those found in district that did not have indoor residual spraying program by use multivariate logistic regression models. Findings of this study revealed that increased use of indoor residual spray is associated with a decrease in the prevalence of malaria as shown by lower rates of malaria (6.4%) in districts which had indoor residual spray program compared to those without the program (16.7%). This study is useful in explaining some of the ways in which malaria can be eliminated.

Mutagonda, R. F., Kamuhabwa, A. A. R., Minzi, O. M. S., Massawe, S. N., Maganda, B. A., & Aklillu, E. (2016). Malaria prevalence, severity and treatment outcome in relation to day 7 lumefantrine plasma concentration in pregnant women. Malaria Journal, 15(1), 278. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-016-1327-1

Mutagonda et al. (2016) carried out a study aimed at determining the prevalence, severity, and factors associated with malaria treatment outcomes during pregnancy. The methodological approach of this study was one-arm prospective cohort study involving 89 pregnant women with uncomplicated malaria. From the results of the study, it was established that the prevalence of malaria was 8.1 % and that 3.4 % of these cases were of severe malaria. This study is useful in highlighting the prevalence of malaria in pregnant women.

References

Gimnig, J. E., Otieno, P., Were, V., Marwanga, D., Abong'o, D., Wiegand, R., ... Hamel, M. J. (2016). The effect of indoor residual spraying on the prevalence of malaria parasite infection, clinical malaria and anemia in an area of perennial transmission and moderate coverage of insecticide treated nets in Western Kenya. PLOS ONE, 11(1), e0145282.

Idris, Z. M., Chan, C. W., Kongere, J., Gitaka, J., Logedi, J., Omar, A., ... Kaneko, A. (2016). High and heterogeneous prevalence of asymptomatic and sub-microscopic malaria infections on islands in Lake Victoria, Kenya. Scientific Reports, 6, 36958.

Lilley, L. L., Snyder, J. S., & Collins, S. R. (2016). Pharmacology for Canadian Health Care Practice. Elsevier Health Sciences.

Moukam Kakmeni, F. M., Guimapi, R. Y. A., Ndjomatchoua, F. T., Pedro, S. A., Mutunga, J., & Tonnang, H. E. Z. (2018). Spatial panorama of malaria prevalence in Africa under climate change and interventions scenarios. International Journal of Health Geographics, 17.

Mutagonda, R. F., Kamuhabwa, A. A. R., Minzi, O. M. S., Massawe, S. N., Maganda, B. A., & Aklillu, E. (2016). Malaria prevalence, severity and treatment outcome in relation to day 7 lumefantrine plasma concentration in pregnant women. Malaria Journal, 15(1), 278.

Nkumama, I. N., O'Meara, W. P., & Osier, F. H. A. (2017). Changes in malaria epidemiology in africa and new challenges for elimination. Trends in Parasitology, 33(2), 128-140.

Sultana, M., Sheikh, N., Mahumud, R. A., Jahir, T., Islam, Z., & Sarker, A. R. (2017). Prevalence and associated determinants of malaria parasites among Kenyan children. Tropical Medicine and Health, 45(1), 25.

World Health Organization (2016). Malaria. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria