Human Immunodeficiency Virus Paper Example

The Organism

Human Immunodeficiency Virus infects and affects every individual, age, religious affiliation, generation, and any other category likely to exist. The virus results in AIDS when it is entirely advanced. Currently, it impacts a large number of human population across the globe with new infections arising every day notwithstanding numerous procedures instituted to reduce the spread. Up to date, the condition has no cure.

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Morphology

The two classifications of HIV include HIV1, and 2. The two classifications are both predominant and have the same indicators and impacts on the infected people. HIV 1 type is the most prevalent category of HIV in the U.S (Skarbinski et al., 2015)

The virus belongs to the genus Lentivirus. It also belongs to the family Retroviridae. The members of the Lentivirus genus and Retroviridae family exhibit different morphology and share common biological properties (Linke-Serinsoz, Fend & Quintanilla-Martinez, 2017). The viruses adversely affect diverse species in the animal kingdom. Human beings are the most affected. However, HIV has a comparatively dissimilar as compared to other retroviruses. Linke-Serinsoz, Fend, and Quintanilla-Martinez (2017) assert that the HIV triggering virus is a roughly sphere-shaped structure with an approximate diameter of 120 nm, which is about 60 times lesser than the red blood cells. It is, however, more significant as compared to the general structure of a virus.

Staining

Negative staining of HIV and AIDS consists of a biological structure which remains unstained, and are surrounded by an electron-dense strain which appears lighter, for instance, in negative contrast, as compared to the dark background. Positive staining of the human immunodeficiency virus involves integrating salts of heavy metals such as uranium, tungsten, and molybdenum, to create contrast (Bolton et al., 2016).

Bolton et al. (2016) assert that the stain applied consists of between one to two percent solution which surrounds the virus particle, and it is pre-adsorbed to the grids and dries out. The technique results in high solution information, and it is applicable in the study of selected aspects of a retrovirus. Since negative staining is likely to damage other artifacts due to osmosis, negative staining is not a recommended method which is preferred for the elucidation of a retrovirus.

Metabolism

The most common metabolic reactions of the human immunodeficiency virus are as a result of the usage of anti-retroviral therapy. These include insulin resistance, impaired glucose metabolism, lactic acidosis, dyslipidemia, and osteopenia. Such distressing morphologic changes in the body are linked to the metabolic abnormalities which are connected to fat accumulation in the abdomen. According to Bolton, et al. (2016),

The metabolic alterations coincide with the availability of the active antiretroviral that is the same as the features evident in the metabolic syndrome. Among the major concerns include the possibility for increased cardiovascular mortality and morbidity. It is difficult to completely understand the critical causes of morphologic changes and metabolic disturbances linked to ART. ART possibly involves the effects of HIV per se and the direct and indirect effects of ART.

Genetics

There is a close link between HIV and genetics. There are genes which are protective, while other genes potentially increase the risk of contracting the virus. The genes affect the rate at which HIV progresses in an HIV positive individual. For instance, Kenney et al. (2017) explained that CCR5 delta-32 deletion protects the individual against some types of human immunodeficiency. Kenney et al. (2017) approximated that not more than 1% of people exhibit the gene, and it is something straightforward to test.

The individuals who think that they are protected due to their genetic makeup are just lucky. In as much as genetics are likely to protect against infection, they can also increase the risk of contracting the virus. There are also some more infectious viruses, and the individual immune responses have an outstanding effect on the transmission of the virus.

The Disease

Pathogenesis

The HIV lentivirus causes AIDS through interacting with various numbers of altered body cells and escapes the resistant reaction of the host in contradiction to it. The primary means of HIV transmission is through genital fluids and blood, and to neonatal from HIV positive mothers. The infection process contains the collaboration of HIV with the CD4 molecules and other recently identified cell receptors. HIV entry and virus-cell infusion subsequently take place. Due to the viral infection, various intercellular methods define the close expression of viral accessory and regulatory genes which leads to latent or productive infection. The host reacts counter to HIV through counteracting antibodies and via resilient, resistant responses which keep the infection for a long time.

Epidemiology

Kenney et al. (2017) explained that the first case of AIDS to be recognized was among the homosexual men in 1981 (United States). There were limited infections with human immunodeficiency virus. However, there has been an increased infection of the virus over the past three decades, and it has emerged to become the worst epidemic of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. The virus has over 35 million fatalities, and it is ranked to be among adverse epidemics alongside the influenza epidemic of the 1900s, and Bubonic outbreak of the 14th century. Among the impacts of these infections includes altering demographics, cultures, politics, economics and human suffering.

The discovery of HIV led to the diagnostic cases of opportunistic infections such as tuberculosis, which called for the critical monitoring of the epidemic. The identification of ART and prevention of prenatal transmission has dramatically improved the impact of the epidemic.

In 2012, Kenney et al. (2017) approximated that approximately 35.3 people were living with HIV. The case of HIV infection was prevalent in sub-Saharan and southern Africa. The regions had the highest burden of HIV (approximately 70%). However, global epidemiology has remarkably changed due to expanding access to antiretroviral drugs. Due to this, it is approximated that approximately 9.7 million individuals from low and middle-income states have embarked on taking anti-retroviral (Grulich & Vajdi, 2015). Grulich and Vajdi (2015) assert that there has also been a reduction of HIV infection through heterosexual transmission.

HIV is also a significant contributor to the worldwide load of other diseases (UNAIDS, 2014). For instance, Grulich and Vajdi (2015) assert that HIV was the principal cause of ill health for individuals between 30-44 years, and it was the fifth chief foundation for other infections for all ages.

The Clinical Picture

Diagnosis

There are diverse common methods which are used in diagnosing HIV. They involve testing saliva for antibodies, or blood to identify the presence of the virus. However, it usually takes more time for the body to develop the antibodies.

Individuals who have been exposed to the virus require immediate testing. However, it can take the antibodies about six weeks to 12 months to develop. It is because of this reason that medical practitioners recommend a follow-up test after every three months. Testing is critical, and the medical health providers offer it. They also provide appropriate counseling. There are also anonymous and free testing. The doctor asks about the symptoms, risk factors, and medical history, and also performs a medical examination. The three common types of testing include Elisa, western blot, home tests, viral load test, and saliva tests. There are also lab tests to check for other opportunistic infections such as Hepatitis, Tuberculosis, Sexually transmitted infections, Toxoplasmosis, urinary tract infections, and kidney or liver damage.

Treatment

There is no established treatment for HIV. However, there are various drugs which are available to control the spread and the effect of the virus. Such treatments are referred to as antiretroviral therapy (ART). The drugs can block the virus in various ways. The drugs should also be combined from two classes to avoid developing drug-resistant strains of the virus. The following are the classes:

• Nucleotide or nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs)- these are distorted versions of the building blocks that HOV needs to make its copies.
• Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs)- these turn off the proteins which HIV requires to make copies of itself.
• Integrase inhibitors-work through disabling integrase protein
• Protease inhibitors-inhibit HIV protease
• Fusion/entry inhibitors- block HIV entry into CD4 T cells.

Vaccines

There is still an unknown HIV cure for HIV. There are however efforts to improve the treatment, prevent the spread, and also create awareness to have a positive impact on many lives. However, there are two major types of HIV vaccines. These include therapeutic HIV vaccine and preventive HIV vaccine. Therapeutic HIV vaccine is designed to improve the immune response of the body for an individual who is already HIV positive. There are however developments and testing of therapeutic HIV vaccines which are likely to slow down the progression of HIV to AIDS.

Preventive HIV vaccines, on the other hand, are given to individuals who do not have HIV. The primary goal is to prevent future infection. The vaccine is likely to strengthen the immune system to identify and appropriately fight HIV in cases where one is exposed to the infection.

The Current Research

Aidsmap provides an update on the current research and progress of HIV/AIDS as of 3rd April 2019. The report talks about the irreversible likelihood of Lipodystrophy. It implies to fat distribution among individuals with HIV who at one point took anti-HIV medications and experiences persistence (HIV update, 2019). The fat distribution is also linked to increased risk of high blood pressure, and abnormal cholesterol levels even several years after completing treatment.

Drugs such as stavudine (d4T), zidovudine (AZT), and didanosine (ddI) from the nucleoside reverse the families of transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI). These are rarely used. The research came to the conclusions after comparing 451 individuals living with HIV and had taken d4T, AZT or ddl. The study also involved 310 individuals with HIV and had never taken drugs, and furthermore 2283 individuals from the general population.

The research suggested that individuals who had taken d4T, AZT and ddl had done so for an average of six and a half years. However, they stopped taking the drugs an average of nine years ago.

The study measured the visceral fat of the participants around the organs (there are speculations that the drugs are likely to cause an accumulation of the specific type of fat). It was established that the accumulation of more visceral fat among individuals who had taken such older medications than in HIV positive individuals who had not taken.

The study also established that annually, the individuals who take specific anti-HIV drugs are associated with a larger area of visceral fat. The length of time, however, differs since the individuals had stopped taking the drugs, and were not linked to having less visceral fat. The study also linked HIV positive individuals with higher visceral fats to be at higher risk of high blood pressure due to raised total cholesterol and lower HDL. The research concluded that the harmful effect of the drug is irreversible at a time frame of the study (nine years).

New advances in HIV Research

UNAIDS conducted an annual Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI) in March 2014 (Global Statistics, 2019). T...