Anthrax Paper Example

Introduction

Anthrax is a contagious disease caused by Bacillus anthracis. Bacillus anthracis is a gram-positive, rod-like bacteria (Department Veteran Health Initiative, 2013; Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014; Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2016). According to the CDC (2014), anthrax is one of the most probable biological agents available for the use in bioterrorism (para. 2). The CDC (2014) justifies this claim by citing the facts that anthrax spores are readily available, can be made in a laboratory, and can last for a lengthy period in the environment (para. 2). Also, anthrax makes a good weapon for its spores are microscopic (CDC, 2014). They are, therefore, hard to smell, taste or see (CDC, 2014). Thus, anthrax can be released stealthily by putting them into powders, sprays, food, and water without people knowing (CDC, 2014). More importantly, nations have employed it as a weapon previously (CDC, 2014).

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There are three types of Anthrax: skin (or cutaneous), inhalation, and intestinal anthrax (Department Veteran Health Initiative, 2013; CDC, 2016). Cutaneous anthrax arises when the Bacillus anthracis enters the body through smalls cuts and abrasion on the skin (Department Veteran Health Initiative, 2013; CDC, 2016). Skin anthrax produces sores that develop into black scabs on the skin. As for inhalation anthrax, it occurs when people inhale Bacillus anthracis into the bronchioles and alveoli (Department Veteran Health Initiative, 2013). The main symptom of inhalation anthrax patients is fever (Department Veteran Health Initiative, 2013). This form of anthrax is the most harmful. Thus, it requires immediate and intensive care (Department Veteran Health Initiative, 2013; CDC, 2016). The last form and the rarest, intestinal anthrax, presents itself if a person ingests contaminated substances (Department Veteran Health Initiative, 2013; CDC, 2016). It is difficult to diagnose and commonly occur in explosive outbreaks of food poisoning (Department Veteran Health Initiative, 2013).

Historical Development of Anthrax

Scholars believe anthrax originated in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Many of them also suppose anthrax was the fifth plague of the ten pestilences during the time of Moses (CDC, 2016). That plaque affected Egyptians' domesticated animals. Ancient Greece and Rome knew about anthrax as illustrated by Homer's 700 BC piece: The Iliad, and Virgil's (70-19BC) poems (CDC, 2016).

Anthrax was first described clinically in 1752 and 1769. Before that, its descriptions were in historical accounts only (CDC, 2016). In 1877, Robert Koch, a bacteriologist, studied Bacillus anthracis. From his studies, he determined the bacteria forms spores that could live for a long time under severe conditions (CDC, 2016). The scientist was also able to isolate and grow a pure culture of the bacteria, which he injected into animals (CDC, 2016). Those experiments, helped Koch to describe how injecting Bacillus anthracis into animals caused anthrax, the live cycle of the disease, and form the basis for the Koch's postulates too (CDC, 2016). The Koch's postulates are the criteria used to establish the causative relationship between microbes and diseases (CDC, 2016).

The origin of using diseases as bioagents goes back to the 1800s scientific discoveries on how to grow specific microbes (CDC, 2016). Those earlier studies resulted in the development of modern methods for growing large quantities of given germs (CDC, 2016). The basis of growing of anthrax bacteria is Robert Koch. But it was not until the early 1900s when the first application of anthrax as an act of aggression can be tracked (CDC, 2016). That was during the World War I when the Germany army infected livestock and animal feed bought by Allied Nations from non-partisan states (CDC, 2016). According to evidence, that covert biowarfare involved the infection of livestock intended to be traded to the allied forces from Argentina in 1917 and 1918, which led to the death of 200 mules (CDC, 2016).

In 1932, Japan started manufacturing anthrax to use as a weapon. Japan experiments of weaponized anthrax were in the region of Manchuria (CDC, 2016). At the same time, they injected prisoners with anthrax and other bioagents (CDC, 2016). They also spayed anthrax and other biological agents directly to homes in 11 Chinese cities, using planes (CDC, 2016).

In 1942, the U.S. and Great Britain commenced programs to test anthrax and other bioweapons (CDC, 2016). The U.S. experiments occurred on testing sites in Mississippi and Utah, where more than 5,000 anthrax bombs were dropped in preparation to probable attacks from Germany (CDC, 2016). In Great Britain, the release of anthrax happened on the Gruinard Island, which is located off the coast of Scotland. 80 sheep were put on the island before it was sprayed with anthrax (CDC, 2016). All of them died of anthrax. That experiment confirmed the long-lasting contamination effect of the disease. After the contamination, the island stayed unoccupied until 1986, when Great Britain decontaminated it by soaking it with a mixture of formaldehyde and seawater for a year (CDC, 2016). The island was designated as disinfected following the death of all anthrax spores (CDC, 2016).

The most recent and the first intentional anthrax attacks in the U.S. took place in 2001 (CDC, 2016). Theses ensued after the 9/11 attacks (CDC, 2016). The culprits send letters containing a white powder laced with anthrax to two senators' offices and media houses along the East Coast (CDC, 2016). Authorizes retrieved four of the letters stamped September 18, 2001, and October 9, 2001 (CDC, 2016). The powder form of the bacteria causes it to float in the air to be inhaled (CDC, 2016). Responders detected Anthrax contamination in the postal facilities that handled the letters and the buildings where they were opened (CDC, 2016). Security officers recorded the initial case of infection on October 4, 2001 (CDC, 2016). Between October and November 2001, there were 11 confirmed cases of inhalation anthrax and 11 others of cutaneous anthrax (CDC, 2016). Seven of the 11 anthrax inhalation worked at a postal facility where the letters were posted (CDC, 2016). Two cases were traced to the AMI Publishing while the other two involved a 94-year old woman from Connecticut and a New York Hospital worker (CDC, 2016).

Five people out of the 22 who got sick with anthrax died (CDC, 2016). They all had inhalation anthrax, the deadliest type of the anthrax disease. In total, 43 people tested positive for exposure to anthrax (CDC, 2016). Officials considered other 10,000 individuals to be at risk for possible exposure (CDC, 2016).

The Physical and Biological Toxicity Mechanism of Anthrax

Anthrax is caused by Bacillus anthracis "a large Gram-positive, rod-shaped, aerobic, spore-forming bacterial pathogen" (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014). The phagocytosis-hindering poly-D-glutamic acid capsule and tripartite exotoxin are the primary harmful factors of the bacteria (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014). The anthrax toxin contains 2 enzymatically active components: lethal factor (LF) and edema factor (EF) (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014). It also has one joint receptor binding and translocation element: protective antigen (PA) (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014). The three elements are independently nontoxic, but combine to produce AB-type binary toxins: lethal toxin (LT = LF+PA) and edema toxin (ET = EF+PA) (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014). These toxins are typically accountable for the anthrax symptoms and fatal effects (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014).

Cells intoxication anthrax causes comprise several phases. Full-length PA (PA83) binds to the cellular CMG2 and TEM8 receptors (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014). It is then sliced by extracellular furin protease to a 63-kDa form (PA63) and undergoes oligomerization, establishing either heptametic or octameric ring-like prepores (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014). The prepore formation generates three 3 or four LF and/or EF binding spots at the edge of two adjacent PA molecules (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014). Additionally, the oligomeric prepore creation results in receptor-assisted motioning that prompts endocytosis of the anthrax toxin complexes (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014). Under the acidic endosomal setting, the oligomeric PA63 prepore experiences considerable physical alterations that make it embed into the endosomal membrane, creating a cation-selective conduit (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014). The protein barrier of the oligomeric PA63 makes a solitary passageway, a water-filled opening linking solutions on both sides of the endosomal membrane (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014). PA then turns into an effective translocase, which, using the proton slope across the endosomal membrane (pHendosome < pHcytosol), unfolds and translocates LF and EF into the host cell cytosol. The seven (or eight) F427 residues form a thin constriction section inside the channel lumen (-clamp) that acts as a translocase active site crucial for the A components transport (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014). Once in the cytosol, LF and EF apply their catalytic actions. LF is a Zn-metalloprotease interrupts host cell signal transduction by slicing mitogen-activated protein kinase kinases (MAPKKs) and Nlrp1 (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014). EF is a calmodulin-reliant adenylyl cyclase, which aids in the dissemination of B. anthracis in the host and its neutralization prolongs the survival period of spores introduced into a mouse (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014).

The cardiovascular system and liver are responsible for the toxicity effects of lethal and edema of LT and ET respectively (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014). LT mortality requires attacking cardiomyocytes and vascular smooth muscle. On the other hand, ET-caused mortality results from attacking hepatocytes (Nestorovich & Bezrukov, 2014).

Personal Protective Equipment Against Anthrax and The Agent's Detecting Devices

In combating an anthrax exposure case, first responders should be equipped with personal protective equipment (PPE). Anthrax-related "PPE includes appropriate respiratory protection, protective garments, and nitrile or vinyl gloves" (The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), 2012, p. 9). To fully protect themselves against inhalation anthrax, first responders need a complete facepiece air purifying respirator (APR) with P100 or N100 filters or a complete facepiece powered air purifying respirator (PAPR) that have high efficiency (HE) filters (NIOSH, 2012). The equipment is, however, necessary when conducting high-risk events such as environmental sampling and remediation (NIOSH, 2012). If the release of anthrax is ongoing via an aerosol generating device, more protection is recommended (NIOSH, 2012). In such a case, the responders need a chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) rated self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) (NIOSH, 2012).

There are several commercially available devices for detecting anthrax. These include the pocket-sized anthrax detector (BaDx [Bacillus anthracis Diagnostic]) from Sandia National Laboratories. The BaDx cost $ 5-7 is designed to detect Bacillus anthraci (Sandia National Laboratories, 2014). It operates without electricity and does not require its user to have specialized training to use it (Sandia National Laboratories, 2014. All one need to do is to place sample swab into the amplification compartment, which has selective growth media (Sandia National Laboratories, 2014). The device then uses a lateral flow analysis, comparable to a common pregnancy test, to detect the anthrax bacteria (Sandia National Laboratories, 2014). Magnetic valves let the sample to proceed from one stage to another to complete the testing procedur...