UK's Ethnic Minorities Struggle with FGM: A Background and Rationale

There have been reports that the "cutters" are operating in expensive private clinics across the United Kingdom, including major cities such as London and Bristol (Topping and Carson, 2019). In the areas that ethnic minority communities reside, FGM is a problem since they have the cultural backup to continue with the practice. Most members of the ethnic minorities do not have the right information, and they are ignorant of the laws, the tendency to hold onto their culture is prevalent (Dixon et al., 2018). In the United Kingdom, Female genital mutilation has been illegal since 1985, from 2003; anyone who took their child outside the nation for a cut faced 14 years in prison. Despite the law, there has been no single conviction on the same. Getting the fact on the number of girls facing the cut is hard, this is because it is usually done in secrecy and thus the location and perpetrators are hard to get. Moreover, the issue has been neglected by successive governments in fear of facing cultural practices.

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Due to the massive pressure from anti-FGM campaigners, the government has made baby steps to control the vice. Hospitals are now required to gather data on all the women they treat and those who have undergone FGM. Doctors and nurses receive no information on how to handle affected women who receive life-threatening effects during childbirth. It is estimated that 66000 persons have undergone FGM in England and Wales; more than 15000 girls under the age of 15 years are viewed to be at risk (Macfarlane and Dorkenoo, 2015). According to the Guardian (2019), more than 2000 women sought treatment in London hospitals after undergoing FGM (Macfarlane and Dorkenoo, 2015).

Scotland population has more than doubled from the year 2001, the initial population was 22, 049, but the current population is 46742, and it has significantly contributed to the rise of FGM. The rising cost of air transport makes it hard for people to travel abroad, and thus, the vice has to be done secretly within the nation (Macfarlane and Dorkenoo, 2015). To ensure that the culture continues, the perpetrators prefer to hire a "cutter" from abroad by pooling the resources together. The pooling of resources shows the determination that the people have to continue with the vice. On the other hand, the wealthy are using doctors or nurses from private clinics. The continuation of the vice has made London to be labeled as the FGM city of London since it attracts people across Europe who comes to have their daughter's mutilated (Dixon et al., 2018).

FGM in the United Kingdom is rife; all that is needed are the resources to uncover the issue. People are ignorant of the issue; on the other hand, it is hard for the victims to come out and reveal the impact that it has on them. People are still bound by cultural ties, and most of them are tied down to the oath of secrecy. Globally, more than 140 million are affected by the vice (Macfarlane and Dorkenoo, 2015). Too much damage is done to the body parts including the removal of labia and clitoris, leaving only a small sewn up hole for the passing of urine. The vice has been considered vital in preparing a girl for adulthood, with some girls been seen as an outcast if they have not undergone the operation. Attachment to FGM is enshrined by the thought that it helps tame female sexuality and search for autonomy (Topping and Carson, 2019).

The prevalence level of FGM varies by nation; countries like Egypt and Sudan have more than 98% of their females mutilated. More than half of the countries in Africa have indigenous tribes that practice the vice. Some countries in Asia and the Middle East also have people who put up with the vice (Topping and Carson, 2019). For those with firsthand experience, they describe the ordeal as inhuman, to them; it is usually the worst experience in life (Topping and Carson, 2019). The risk of bleeding to death is high; many pick up infections while in the long term; there is the risk of infertility, lack of sexual desire, and childbirth complications.

In a report filed by city university London, the number of women born in FGM practicing countries aged 15-49 increased from 182,000 in 2001 to 283,000 in 2011 (Macfarlane and Dorkenoo, 2015). Most of the women were born in the Horn of Africa, where FGM is prevalent, and type III type of mutilation is practiced. The number of women from where type I and II FGM practices are done, mainly West Africa also increased by 10,000 over the same time (Dixon et al., 2018). The number of women above 50 years and are suspected to have undergone FGM is estimated to be 24000; this is because most were born in FGM practicing countries. On the other hand, more than 10,000 girls of ages 0-14 were born in FGM practicing cultures, and they are also likely to undergo the practice. Combining the figures, it is estimated that 137,000 women borne into the practice were living in the United Kingdom in 2011 (Macfarlane and Dorkenoo, 2015).

The prevalence rate of FGM varied considerably by region, London had the highest prevalence level, with 21 per 1000 women having undergone the cut. The rates provided by individual authorities showed significant disparities, London Boroughs had the highest rate with 47.4 per 1000, Southward followed with 38.9 per 1000. Other cities with high prevalence rates included Manchester, Slough, Leicester, and Birmingham, with rates ranging from 12 to 16 per 1000 people (Macfarlane and Dorkenoo, 2015). From the figures, it is evident that people who are practicing the vice are more concentrated in urban areas even though women and girls in rural areas are also affected.

Various scholars identify FGM as honor-based violence. There is no agreed definition of the term. The common definition used is that provided by Crown prosecution service, it defines honor-based violence (HBV) as a set of practices that are used to control behaviors in families or other social groups to guard the perceived religious and cultural beliefs. The idea of upholding family honor acts as the main justification for violence and related abuse. Victims of honor-based violence can link the related inequalities and disparities among the victims (Dixon et al., 2018). For instance, the risk of being exposed as illegal immigrants or language barrier the common reasons for the practice are based on tradition, religion, the need to protect virginity and upholding of family values. Others view it as a way to enhance hygiene, even though the views might vary between countries (Topping and Carson, 2019).

Most cultures do the circumcision as a rite of passage showing the transition from childhood to adulthood, in other cultures, it is viewed as a social expectation and those who fail to do it end up being stigmatized or completely isolated. Moreover, un-mutilated girls find it hard to get life partners and thus deemed as failures in life. Therefore, FGM is quite different from forced marriages; it clears the way for a girl since it aligns to the set code of honor, more so, non-adherence can bring about consequences on the victims (Topping and Carson, 2019).

As per the world health organization (WHO), FGM is considered a type of gender-based violence and an extension of human rights violation. Moreover, it is directed towards young children, and thus, it is also portrayed as a form of child abuse. Despite being routinely done in Africa and Asian countries, there is recent evidence that proves FGM is a common occurrence on other parts of the globe. Many women immigrants into Wales and England are FGM survivors (NSPCC.Org, 2019). In 2015, 5702 cases of FGM were reported, 18 of them are said to have taken place in the United Kingdom (Macfarlane and Dorkenoo, 2015). The challenge of getting facts regarding the issue remains high as health practitioners only record cases of survivors; most are revealed when they go out to seek medical treatment. Moreover, few FGM cases are brought to the attention of the police.

Much of the recent literature focuses on the health impact of FGM; more attention is on the effect of sexuality, pregnancy, and the overall reproductive health. Other researchers have focused on the psychological trauma that it causes on the victims. The world health organization has linked FGM to high maternal health in Gambia. On the other hand, researchers have focused on the attitudes that people hold, more specifically, the communities that practice it (Gangoli et al., 2018).

Practitioners and midwives have brought much light into the issue and also highlighted how they have learned to cope with it. The barriers that exist in preventing FGM from happening, more specifically those challenges faced by professionals such as social and health workers have been studied. To increase public awareness and help better the lives of those affected, the different types of FGM and the best way to respond to them have been brought to the attention of health caregivers (Gangoli et al., 2018). Research has proven that there is a need to respond to the victims in a culturally sensitive manner, for the women who may be at risk of experiencing FGM, educating them about how to report and ways through which victims report will go a long way in reducing the level of FGM (Dixon et al., 2018).

The UK government recognizes that FGM is a violation of human rights, there are provisions in which the UK is a signatory such as the convention of human rights, the child rights, the European convention on human rights and the universal declaration of human rights (OHCHR, 2019). The UK has also signed declarations meant to protect women, including preventing violence against women and domestic violence. With this and the existing knowledge on the implications of FGM, people who practice it are at risk of facing criminal charges. The female genital mutilation act of 2003 is meant to protect the vice from happening (OHCHR, 2019). In a nutshell, there are rules and signatories to safeguard against FGM but it is evident that there is no sufficient effort to uphold them and protect potential victims.

The rationale of this research is rooted in four matters. First, the prevalence of the issue of FGM demands an inquiry. Macfarlane and Dorkenoo, (2015) point out that London leads in the practice with 21 out of 1000 women having undergone the cut, other cities follow with rate of 12 to 16 women per 1000. Second, FGM is considered a human rights issue is that in the absence of any medical justification, it violates the individual's personal integrity and inhibits them from achieving the highest level of mental and physical health (Berg et al, 2...