Response Paper: Psychoactive Drugs

Introduction

Drugs and substance abuse is long embedded in human history going back 10,000 years. Researchers have five basic themes for the historical use of psychoactive drugs (those that affect the Central Nervous System). The reasons include: the human need to own the environment and understand their existence; altered state of consciousness from drug use; ruling classes having control over drug use; technology increasing potency and users and researchers finding new methods of consuming the drugs. Uppers are CNS stimulants such as cocaine and nicotine which increase adrenaline, while downers or CNS depressants include opiates and alcohol which slow down the heart rate and some increase serotonin levels bringing about a misguided sense of well-being. All-rounders are psychedelic drugs which distort perceptions, and the most common example is marijuana.

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Other classifications of psychoactive drugs include steroids, inhalants, and psychiatric medication. Surprisingly, compulsive behaviors such as gambling and internet use are also psychoactive drugs. Governments have tried to regulate drug use throughout history and as the United States Congress have passed laws and regulations regarding drug use. The Pure Food and Drug Act was passed in 1906, the Opium Exclusion Act of 1909, the raising of drinking age to 21 in 1984 to the more recent legalization of marijuana in different states.

Chapter 2 looks at the basic reason people take drugs, and that is to escape from their realities and feel better about themselves. Psychoactive drugs disrupt the brain and Central Nervous System (CNS). Psychoactive drugs are fat soluble which means their molecules enter the brain and mirror synapses, essential neurotransmitters and give out wrong signals for the body. The brain has its own uppers, downers and all-rounders for example adrenaline, serotonin and acetylcholine respectively hence the brain does not need any more drugs or mood-altering chemicals.

The more somebody uses a drug habitually, neurons for the accompanying feeling start developing in the brain, and that is how addiction and dependency starts. Genetics and the environment influence a person's drug using tendencies, abuse, addiction, and dependence. Drugs are administered to the brain through inhalation, injection, mucous membrane absorption, ingestion, and active tissue intake. The reward/control pathway of the brain and CNS is what regulates everybody's decisions on whether to use a particular drug. Necessarily, there are two options that the neocortex of the brain has to consider when faced with craving and desire, especially for certain drugs. Usually, people decide to go for it rather than inhibit their urges.

Drugs are transmitted through the neural network once they reach the brain. Nerve cells and synapses transmit the effects of the drugs through electrochemical processes in the brain and Central Nervous System. Each drug affect a certain neurotransmitter for example alcohol impacts serotonin and GABA levels. Tolerance is the disposition towards a drug use has towards a certain substance coming from prolonged use. Dispositional tolerance is where the body speeds up the uptake of the drug which means taking more to achieve the desired effect. Pharmacodynamic tolerance usually involves prescription drugs where the more you use, the less effective it becomes. Behavioral tolerance happens where parts of the brain unaffected by the drug are used more. Cross-tolerance occurs when the use of a particular drug invites the use of another similar drug.

Tissue dependence is a biological adaptation by the body's cells where a drug is needed for them to function. Cross-dependence arises from tissue dependence, and the body seeks similar drugs. Psychological dependence happens when the mind needs a substance to achieve a particular mental state. Withdrawal is when the body is trying to reach homeostasis without the use of the drug. Non-purposive withdrawals are observable and have physical signs while purposive withdrawals are rooted in the psyche and affect the emotional state of the addict. Post-acute withdrawal symptoms are the most serious where physical, emotional and emotional side effects such as memory loss and cognitive breakdown.

Discussion Questions

Discuss the differences among different methods of drug use and the factors that make someone choose one method or another.

A person may choose from the 5 of the methods listed below, depending on how fast he or she wants it to start kicking among other preferences such as availability of drugs and substitutes, preference to a particular method, peer pressure, and dependency.

Ingestion - where the drug is taken orally through the mouth. Absorption is through the small intestine in about 15 minutes.

Inhalation - this is the fastest as it only takes an average of 6 seconds

Snorting - takes about 4 minutes through the nasal capillaries

Injecting - it takes 15 to 30 seconds through a vein and about 5 minutes through the muscle.

Contact absorption - it takes the longest from days to weeks and the best example is nicotine patches placed on the skin. It is an excellent rehabilitative anti-withdrawal measure for tobacco smokers.

Human Functions Controlled by the Old Brain

The old brain is the emotional headquarters of the brain where all the desires, urges, cravings and instincts for survival and comfort are processed. The cerebellum, brain stem, and meso-cortex are parts of the old brain. These parts are referred to as the old brain because their reactions are immediate and instinctive. New brain functions are more logical and thought out, and they take more time to consider options. The old brain instinctive urge sometimes exceeds the new brain's rational process.

Why the Reward/Reinforcement Pathway Exists in Animals and Humans and How It Operates as a Survival Mechanism?

The reward/control pathway of the brain and CNS is what regulates instincts and urges such as hunger. It works like this: it reinforces the message that if you are hungry and you are looking for food, you will eat and be full. The reward has been reinforced and it is a potent motivator for immediate gratification. Necessarily, there are two options that the neocortex of the brain has to consider when faced with craving and desire, for looking for food and mates as these two urges are essential for the survival of animals and humans.

How a Message Is Sent From a Sensory Organ, to the Brain, and Back Again to Another Part of the Body?

Nerve cells in a sensory organ such as the skin detect the signal and identify it using neurons. The nervous system is connected by synapses which transmit the signal using neurotransmitters and electrochemical signals through the Central Nervous System towards the old brain and then to the new brain through the thalamus. Nerve cells in the brain have extensions called axons which transmit the signals towards a part of the body for example if it is fear adrenalin and the brain encourage the legs to move and run away from danger.

How a Message Crosses a Synaptic Gap?

When a message comes through nerve cells and reaches the end of a synapse, a neurotransmitter such as dopamine is used to pass the message across the synaptic gap. The nerve impulse uses electric signals to induce the synapse to produce the necessary neurotransmitter at the synaptic gap. The pre-synaptic neuron produces the neurotransmitter at the first nerve cell, the linked cell across the synaptic gap is called the post-synaptic neuron.

Difference Between What Cocaine Does at a Synapse and What Heroin Does at a Synapse?

At synapse cocaine (a CNS stimulant) boosts transmission of dopamine, the pleasure neurotransmitter. Cocaine is an indirect agonist. Cocaine also induces production of norepinephrine which produces stress. Heroin (a downer) is a direct agonist mimicking the body's natural neurotransmitters at a synapse. It causes inhibition much like the neurotransmitter GABA which reduces the production of dopamine. Heroin also increases production of dopamine in adjacent synapses which produces a high-low effect for the user.

Natural Activities That Affect Similar to Various Psychoactive Drugs?

• Sex- increases the libido and estrogen for women and testosterone for men. Dopamine, adrenaline and other neurotransmitter are produced.
• Video games, 3D movies and ride parks- all of them immerse the viewer in a new world and they act like psychedelic drugs as they change our perception of reality.
• Adrenalin rush sports- these include bungee jumping, skydiving, skating and so on. They increase the adrenalin in the body and they are very addictive
• Working out and going to the gym- endorphins are released in the brain which increases pain tolerance: "No pain, no gain."