Research Paper on Gender Inequality and the "Glass Ceiling"

Introduction

Even though it is the 21st century, women in the American workplace are not enjoying equal rights. This is despite the advancements that have been made to educate and empower women in the past. They faced discrimination in terms of unequal wages, sexual harassment, and misrepresentation (Quffa 143-149). The terms "glass ceiling" characterize a famous metaphor which explains how women fail to secure top positions due to discrimination. Gender inequality is, therefore, a big problem in American businesses today. This paper seeks to explain the history of gender inequity, its magnitude, and its repercussions in the American society.

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History of Gender Inequality

Gender equality has been a contentious issue in the American history. In the early 20th century, married women were hindered from employment by policies referred to as 'marriage bars" (Goldin 17-26). Statistics from surveys conducted on firms in the years 1931 to 1940 revealed that more than 50% of the firms had cases of married women dismissal. In spite of these hindrances, there has been a tremendous progress in the quest for gender equity. The formation of women rights' movements dates back to 1848, but it was until the 20th century that these rights were granted. For instance, the 19th amendment in 1919 gave women political rights which involved the right to vote and to form coalitions in the Congress.

In 1923, a proposal to amend the constitution and give women equal rights was introduced in the Congress, where it was agreed upon by both houses in 1972. The amendment stated that "equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex". However, this was not ratified since only 35 of the needed 38 states assented to the amendment (Quffa 149). It wasn't until 1963 when another achievement in women's rights was made. This was through the Equal Pay Act which forbids sex-based wage discrimination. Both men and women enjoyed the right to receive fair wages regardless of their gender. Also, in 1972, the introduction of the title IX which prohibits sex-based discrimination in all learning institutions was a milestone in gender equality (Quffa 143)

In the year 1975, women became eligible to join military academies through the Public Law and also to participate in the jury pool (Quffa 146). The remarkable advancements in women representation slowed down and later came to a halt in the late 1990s. The title IX, for example, started receiving criticism from various sources, and in 2002 a commission was formed to investigate its effects on the society. The findings from the investigations showed that women had been empowered at the expense of men especially in college athletics.

Finally, the passage of the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 became a huge win for women. The act originated from a case concerning a lady, Mrs. Ledbetter who had faced sex-based wage discrimination. After failing to get justice from the courts, she went to the Congress which formulated the bill that they approved, and it was later signed by President Obama (Weinberg 1762).

The Extent of Gender Inequality

The American woman faces discrimination in terms of unfair wages, sexual harassment, and misrepresentation in top positions. Women have had fewer employment chances than men. Statistics from the United States Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics shows that only 40.8% of women over the age of 16 years were employed in 1970. Even though the numbers have increased to 76% for women between 24 to 54 years, America still hasn't reached a leading position in gender equity (Ziman 157). Another challenge that faces women is how to balance between work and the family. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 71% of employed women and 94% of employed men have childrenbelow18 years. Therefore, women have a bigger responsibility of taking care of the children and other household chores (Ziman 157).

Despite the progress made in closing the wage gap between men and women, gender parity in compensation has not been fully achieved. For instance, in the accounting field, women earned about 78% of the male employee's salary in 2012. The difference in wages can be ascribed to women having less experience due to exit from the industry to cater for their families, or from influence by the 'glass ceiling' effect (Schiffer, Schroeder and Smith 27)

Studies have shown that women face more hindrances when it comes to achieving high managerial positions. These can be attributed to lack of mentorship, the imbalance between work and family responsibilities, and negative mindsets (Ziman 157).Finally, sexual harassment has also barred women from achieving their full potential. Approximately 25% of women have been sexually harassed in the workplace. This has been experienced in all types of occupations, for none is immune to this form of discrimination.

Repercussions of Gender Inequality

Gender inequality has had a negative impact on the society. Studies have shown that sex-based discrimination has led to infant mortality, especially in developing countries. This is evident in Asian and African cultures where there is sex preference of children. Statistics of newborns in China and Korea show that 9 out of 100 newborn girls 'disappear'. Also, sex-based bias has been shown to contribute to divorces and conflicts in families (Edlund and Pande 917-961).

Sex-based discrimination has also contributed to inaccessibility to opportunities, thus hindering economic growth. For instance, in many developing countries, women are denied access to education, healthcare, ownership of property and participation in decision-making (Khayria and Feki 180). In developed countries, gender inequality has led to a widening wage gap and the misrepresentation of women in top managerial positions. In many cases, women have been forced to quit their positions in order to take care of their family issues (Ziman 2013, p.157)

Conclusion

Even with the major strides that have been made over time, women are still fighting to show that they are equal to men. There are various forms of gender inequality such as unequal wages, sexual harassment, and misrepresentation. Gender inequality is evident in both developed and developing countries and has had a negative socio-economic impact on society.

Works Cited

Goldin, Claudia. "Understanding the gender gap: An economic history of American women." Equal employment opportunity: Labor market discrimination and public policy (1994): 17-26.

Lena Edlund, Rohini Pande; Why Have Women Become Left-Wing? The Political Gender Gap and the Decline in Marriage, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Volume 117, Issue 3, 1 August 2002, Pages 917-961, https://doi.org/10.1162/003355302760193922Khayria K, Feki R . "Gender Inequality and Economic Development". Business Economic Journal6:180. doi:10.4172/2151-6219.1000180

Quffa, Wedad Andrada. "A review of the history of gender equality in the United States of America." Social Sciences and Education Research Review 3.2 (2016): 143-149.

Schroeder, David L., and Kenneth A. Smith. "LEANING INTO THE WIND." Strategic Finance 94.12 (2013): 27.

Weinberg, Jeremy A. "Blameless Ignorance-The Ledbetter Act and Limitations Periods for Title VII Pay Discrimination Claims." NYUL Rev. 84 (2009): 1756.

Ziman, Rebecca L. "Women in the Workforce: An In-depth Analysis of Gender Roles and Compensation Inequality in the Modern Workplace".(2013). Honors Theses and Capstones.157