Essay Sample on Gender Equality: Western Cultures Lead the Way

Introduction

Gender roles are a product of culture as much as time. Constructs of gender cannot be uncoupled from historical and cultural contexts. The general view among researchers is that modern Western cultures have achieved better gender parity than Eastern cultures. This difference is attributed to changing perceptions of the role of women in Western cultures which has resulted in more egalitarian socialization of boys and girls. The comparative success of Western cultures is often presented as a vindication of the theories of the social role of gender development over the biological theories of gender development. While most scientists agree that both biology (nature) and socialization (nurture) play a role, there is a lack of consensus as to which factor plays a more significant role.

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A good section of scientists and leading feminists believe that socialization is the prime factor if not the sole factor in the conceptualization of gender. Ethical reasons preclude most scientific experiments that can test the validity of the assertion that social theories of gender hold all the answers (Schmitt et al., 2017). However, an analysis of cultural differences in the perception of gender can offer a measure of validity. If the social role theories of gender development are correct, gender differences in personality should be smaller in cultures that have achieved better gender egalitarianism. This research paper will test the validity of the social role theories by analyzing differences in personality between genders across different cultures.

Background

Popular opinion views gender as a social construct that assigns roles and expectations based on biological sex. Culture refers to a set of values, behaviors, and traditions that define a large group of individuals and is passed down between generations (Schmitt et al., 2016). Hence, gender is an integral part of the culture by definition. Since gender is heavily based on notions of femininity and masculinity, it is expected to influence personality which is defined as a pattern of behaviors, emotional states, and cognitions that arise from the interaction of environmental and biological conditions. Personality can be analyzed using the OCEAN/five-factor model (FFM), the dark triad, depression measures, and subjective well-being, among other measures (Schmitt et al., 2017).

There are broadly two schools of thought on the factors that influence gender. The social role theories of gender development hold that gender is mostly a social construct that arose during the division of work between the sexes and has no biological basis (Schmitt et al., 2017). The theories place a significant emphasis on the role of socialization rather than biology in the emergence of gender differences in children.

On the other hand, biological theories posit that there is no distinction between sex and gender. The approach emphasizes the roles of hormones (specifically, testosterone), chromosomes, and evolutionary biology in the emergence of different social traits between the genders. Supporters of this approach believe that socialization plays only a small role in the development of differences that underpin gender (Schmitt et al., 2016).

Review of Literature

Researchers have consistently found differences in personalties between genders. Gender differences in personalities have been found across all cultures, making it a 'gender universal' concept and a good measure for the validity of the social role theories. Costa, McCrae, & Terracciano (2001) did groundbreaking research with 23,000 subjects from 26 different cultures and found that women scored significantly higher on Neuroticism, Agreeableness and specific aspects of Extraversion while men scored higher on overall Extraversion and Openness to Experience. Schmitt et al. (2008) found similar results. McCrae & Terracciano (2005) found smaller differences when self-reporting was not used. However, the differences were still significant, while Gagne, Miller, & Goldsmith (2013) found personality differences in children as young as three years. If these differences were down to socialization, then cultures with egalitarian socialization should have smaller gaps than those with high gender inequality. However, researchers have found contradictory results in nearly all traits and measures.

OCEAN traits

The OCEAN score measures five traits that define personality; Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (Schmitt et al., 2017). Costa, McCrae, & Terracciano (2001), Schmitt et al. (2008), Schmitt (2015), and Schmitt et al. (2016) all found that countries with cultures that were considered to promote gender equality (Western countries and cultures) showed more significant differences in personality traits between men and women. For instance, Schmitt et al. (2008) found that France and the Netherlands confirmed the highest distinctions in personalities between the genders for the OCEAN traits score (d =- 0.44 and d = - 0.36 respectively). The same study found that Botswana and India, countries with low gender equality scores compared to Western nations, had the weakest differences for the OCEAN personality traits score at d = 0 and d = - 0.001 respectively.

Dark Triad Traits

The dark triad of personality traits measures three negative traits; Machiavellianism, Narcissism, and Psychopathy (Schmitt et al., 2017). Costa, McCrae, & Terracciano (2001), Schmitt et al. (2016), and Schmitt et al. (2017) all report significant differences in dark triad personality traits between men and women across all cultures. Most cultures are more tolerant of negative traits in men rather than in women as part of the masculine construct. Hence, men scored significantly higher than women in the dark triad personality traits score. However, the extent of the differences across cultures once again strongly contradicts the social role theories of gender development. Schmitt et al. (2016), and Schmitt et al. (2017) all found higher differences in scores for the dark triad personality traits in Western cultures compared to Eastern cultures. Schmitt et al. (2016) conducted a study across 58 nations and found that Iceland, New Zealand, and Denmark had the highest differences in scores for men and women. Ethiopia, Tanzania and South Korea reported the smallest differences between the genders for the dark traits.

Subjective Well-being and Depression

Studies that reported on subjective well-being and depression produced exciting results. Generally, women are twice as likely as men to report depression across the world. However, countries that have achieved better gender equality (western nations) report lower levels of depression and better well-being across both genders compared to countries with lower gender parity. However, Schmitt et al. (2016), and Schmitt et al. (2017) found that the reduction in depression and improvement in well being in countries with better gender egalitarianism was more pronounced for men than for women. Due to this finding, the differences in personality traits related to depression and well being between genders was still more marked in cultures with high gender equality compared to those with high gender inequality. Schmitt et al. (2016) reported similar trends for negative traits such as anger, sadness, and fear.

Discussion

The review of literature has irrefutably disconfirmed the social role theories of gender development. Socialization does not play a pre-eminent role in the event of differences based on gender. This assertion is controversial and contrary to popular and feminist discourses (Schmitt et al., 2017). However, the scientific evidence is clear and should not be discarded because it is unpopular. While the evidence challenges a vital tenet of feminism, it can be advantageous for both men and women to acknowledge that there are fundamental gender differences that go beyond the effect of socialization. For instance, the sex-based differences in personality can inform different treatment styles for mental health illnesses in men and women as they have different personalities and outlooks in life.

The literature review does present new questions. What role does biology play in the development of gender, and why is the gap between gender-egalitarian and non-egalitarian cultures different in a paradoxical manner? Evolution appears to be the big winner in this case, but testosterone seems to play an essential part during fetal development. Schmitt et al. (2017) note that when female monkeys are exposed to testosterone in utero, they become rougher and more aggressive during play in a manner comparable to male monkeys but no other female monkeys. The research also notes that scientists have found differences in the brains of males and female fetuses, but only after male brains have been exposed to testosterone. The paradoxical nature of the results can be explained by the fact that gender-egalitarian cultures allow women and men to express themselves fully. As a result of this, the impact of evolution and biology is more pronounced in such cultures.

Conclusion

The social role theories have been disconfirmed. Socialization appears to play a lesser role in the development of gender constructs than previously thought. It is more likely that evolutionary pressures, and the hormone testosterone, play a more significant role. However, there is a need for further research to confirm the part of biological theories. For instance, researchers can measure if different evolutionary conditions resulted in differences in gender constructs between cultures.

References

Costa Jr, P. T., Terracciano, A., & McCrae, R. R. (2001). Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: robust and surprising findings. Journal of personality and social psychology, 81(2), 322. Retrieved from https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/0022-3514.81.2.322

Gagne, J. R., Miller, M. M., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2013). Early-but modest-gender differences in focal aspects of childhood temperament. Personality and Individual Differences, 55(2), 95-100. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886913000755

McCrae, R. R., & Terracciano, A. (2005). Universal features of personality traits from the observer's perspective: data from 50 cultures. Journal of personality and social psychology, 88(3), 547.

Schmitt, D. P., Long, A. E., McPhearson, A., O'brien, K., Remmert, B., & Shah, S. H. (2017). Personality and gender differences in global perspective. International Journal of Psychology, 52, 45-56. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ijop.12265

Schmitt, D. P., Realo, A., Voracek, M., & Allik, J. (2008). Why can't a man be more like a woman? Sex differences in Big Five personality traits across 55 cultures. Journal of personality and social psychology, 94(1), 168. Retreived from https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.94.1.168