New Imperialism: Expansion & Building Empires - Essay Sample

Introduction

New Imperialism is characterized by colonial expansion by the United States, different European powers, and Japan. It took place between the 19th and 20th centuries. At this period, states were focusing on expanding their territories overseas and building their empires through new and advanced technology. For instance, European countries like Britain, France, and Germany established their empires in Africa and Asia. This essay explains gives answers to the following questions.

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Question one: While explanations for the formation and success of European overseas empires in the early modern period have concentrated on European dynamics, European imperalism developed as well in concert with and through voluntary participation by local inhabitants in Africa, the Americas, and Asia. What were the key of such cooperation and how did they help make possible and shape Europe's overseas empires?

Alison (1578), states that one of the ways the European empires made the inhabitants cooperate was through the attempt to imprint their culture onto the inhabitants. Since the European empires conquered most of the territories of the world, this made them think that they were not only militarily superior but also culturally superior. Europeans believed that it was necessary to replace the inferior culture of the inhabitants and their own claiming to be "civilizing" them. Interestingly, the process of homogenization and cultural assimilation also was practiced in Europe Clendinnen (1529), gives an example of cultural imperialism like in the case of British India. This kind of imperialism had two main characteristics; firstly, it acted as a means of control; secondly, it exemplified the desire of the British to make Indian people more civilized, for instance, the introduction and development of the English language in India. The British controlled the access to the English language since Indians wanted to master the language because it was desirable, and they wanted to succeed and be like British. This impact is still evident in India since English is still an official language in India.

Another way was through religious and humanitarian goals (Defoe 23). Many westerners had a belief that the Europeans had to civilize other people beyond the seas. In return, non-whites were to receive the blessings of these Europeans, including law, Christianity, and medicine. The most successful one between the three was through the use of Christianity. Most inhabitants cooperated with the European empires to get Christianity, and this helped in expanding the European's overseas empires.

According to Clendinnen (1526), improved medical knowledge and superior technology helped in shaping European empires overseas. For example, Quinine helped Europeans to not only venture and survive tropical diseases in the mosquito-infected interiors of Asia and Africa but also made the inhabitants cooperate since they will be given medicine. Since the Europeans had advanced technology, these made indigenous people believe that they were superior, and some of them had a quest for this education.

Question two: European imperialism from the fifteenth to the eighteenth century was based on both a sense of the difference between Europeans and others and between Europe and other places and on a sense of similarity (or potential similarity) between Europeans and others and Europe and other places. How did these perspectives combine in European imperial designs?

Clendinnen (1545), points out that European's encounters were as a result of expansion on the dynamic western societies when they were transforming to capitalist economies and states. Each of the three waves of expansion brought about encounters with "others" for the Europeans. It brought different people from different parts of the world who were self-confident, fair-skinned, having firearms, big vessels, and they were hungry for souls and riches.

These waves of expansion took place around the age of global plunder, and they only benefitted the Western world. Moreover, they prepared the way for a more "transcultural" world (Defoe 45).

Other than redistributing world resources to Europeans and increasing its global power, the process had two long-term and interrelated consequences (Alison, 1628). Firstly, they gave European new stimulus in its thinking about man, religion, law, civilization, nature, society, and history.

It made Europe be a new area of intellectual inquiry, for example, in terms of comparative history, sociology, biology, linguistics, history, and anthropology.

Europeans introduced an impressive array of both printed travel accounts and also historical writings (Clendinnen,1555). Through the two, the deeds of the Europeans Conquistadores, navigators, and adventures were preserved in the national historical narratives. Voyage and travel accounts provided the philosophers and historians with fundamental information and also provided inspiration for literacy work. These kinds of publications brought about the experience of the new world to the purview of Europeans.

Lastly, Europeans made contact with different people, cultures, and human societies around the world (Clendinnen,1557). For instance, the cultures and societies that Europeans met in South America, continental North, and the Caribbean were viewed as "savagery." On the other hand, the Europeans had encountered civilizations that they generally viewed as "advanced," for example, Inca, Aztec and Maya empires. Posing a number of ethnological and historical questions.

Question three: In establishing and sustaining colonial systems, European states relied on a combination of legal claims and violence, against both colonial subjects and rival powers. How did each component function in establishing control and what were the limits of their effectiveness?

Most countries were colonized through an international legal principle referred to as Doctrine of Discovery (Clendinnen, 1559). It is among the first international law, and it allegedly authorized Europeans (Christians) to explore and claim land outside Europe. They planted their flags in "newly discovered" land. They had well-organized procedures and rituals to Discover and make claims on these territories/lands over indigenous people. As noted by Alison (1630), the Doctrine stated that Europeans automatically possessed property rights in every land and gained political, commercial, and governmental rights over the inhabitants without their consent or knowledge. This legal principle was justified by racial, religious ethnocentric ideas of Christianity and Europeans being superior compared to other people and religion. Clendinnen (1565), adds that this Doctrine is still in the domestic and international law and is still being applied against indigenous nations and people. This type of strategy was very effective in most parts of the world. For instance, Canadian, Australian, American, New Zealand, and international courts have been struggling with the question about Discovery and Indigenous title deeds in recent decades. However, in 2007, China evoked this Doctrine by planting its flag on South China Seabed's to claim both sovereign and commercial rights.

On the other hand, Alison (1640), claims that despite that colonizers had power over the indigenous people, which enabled them to claim lands and territories which were previously inhabited, they faced resistance from the inhabitants. In fact, resistance and violence are part of the story about colonialism (Defoe 55). Indigenous people in each and every continent staged nonviolence and violence resistance to anyone who wanted to invade their territory. However, unlike Dictorine of Discovery principle, violence was not effective in many parts of the world since the European empires lost these battles.

Works Cited

Alison Games. The Web of Empire: English Cosmopolitans in an Age of Expansion, 1560-1660. Oxford University Press, 2008.

Defoe, Daniel. "Robinson Crusoe, repr. edn., edited by John Richetti." London and New York: Penguin Classics (2003).

Clendinnen, Inga. Ambivalent Conquests: Maya and Spaniard in Yucatan, 1517-1570. Vol. 61. Cambridge University Press, 2003.