Fingerprint Analysis: Criminal Investigation's Century - Essay Sample

Introduction

For more than a century, experts employ the technique of forensic fingerprint analysis in the criminal investigation department. The strategy assists in identifying law offenders around the world. The concept involves the sampling of fingerprints found in crime scenes. Analysts take time to compare the various features of the print to the current suspects. It helps to speed up the process of carrying out a criminal investigation. The scientists have to examine and come up with accurate results after a forensic fingerprint evaluation. The next step entails the use of another expert to verify the collected data before making conclusions (Ostojic, 2017). Experts find the idea of focusing on fingerprints to be effective since everyone has their print. It eradicates the concept of confusion and errors during an investigation. The concept helps criminal investigators to determine the people involved in a crime event which facilitates the generation of insights about the causes of the criminal activities.

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Forensic science specialists consider fingerprints retrieved from any material as latent. Sometimes, the latent prints aren't visible to the human eye hence specialists employ the use of different chemicals such as iodine and silver nitrate depending on the type of material. U.S. criminal investigators came up with the idea of latent prints in the 1930s. When the experts discovered the presence of fingerprints inside the offenders' gloves. Fluids such as moisture, ink and grease facilitate the creation of well visible fingerprints onto surfaces such as glass. Substances such as ink and paint undermine the appearance of prints on surfaces. Within fingerprint records, one can acquire data about a person's fingers especially the thumb. Analysts also prefer the idea of examining fingerprints because it doesn't transition for a lifetime, impossible to change. The method is accurate since it helps law enforces in identify criminals who want to hide their identity. The fingerprinting technique started to adapt the use of new technology such as NGI systems to enforce criminal investigations (Daluz, 2018).

Biometrics

Biometrics refers to the measurement and analysis of a person's unique physical and behavioral characteristics. Physical characteristics include fingerprints, iris, and palm scans while behavioral scans may include aspects such as gait which may be assessed without physical contact with the person scanned (Li, 2017). A biometric system consists of three aspects: a reading/scanning device to record the biometric factor being assessed, a software that readily converts the information obtained above into a standardized digital format and a database that stores the above information.

Impact of Using Biometrics

The benefits of biometrics as a whole include the fact that they are harder to fake or steal as compared to passwords. They are also easy to use and convenient with very little change if any over a person's lifetime. They are also not- transferrable and the individual's templates take up less storage space as compared to the manual file storage systems. They are also very easily accessible even remotely and have faster turnaround time compared to manual methods.

The disadvantages of these systems include the fact that they are very expensive to develop and run. Failure of a system to collect all of the biometric data can lead to failure in the identification of a user. Databases can also still be hacked and be subject to issues such as identity theft. Errors such as false negatives and false positives can also occur and in the rare event of the deep injuries say to the hands, the fingerprint scanners maybe not be able to identify them. Another shortcoming of biometrics is that they cannot fully replicate /replace the complex analytical skills of forensic experts and this human dependency can be a route for error or manipulations.

Forensic Fingerprinting Analysis

Fingerprints scientifically referred to as epidermal ridges develop in utero between the 10th and 16th weeks of pregnancy. The basal layer undulates becoming more prominent and forming folds of the epidermis into the dermis. These are the primary ridges which are encoded between dermis and epidermis and so cannot be destroyed by superficial skin injury. They have a genetic component to them and are also environmental influences such as the mother's blood pressure, oxygen levels in the blood, hormonal and nutritional status. Other factors include the density of the amniotic fluid and fetal position in the womb. They are believed to have developed as an evolutionary advantage to help in the gripping of objects especially in wet environments by creating friction. This is supported by the fact that they are also present in other primates and climbing koalas. They are also involved in the modification and interpretation of fine touch by transmitting/amplifying vibrations on uneven surfaces. There are three main types of fingerprint patterns namely arches, loops, and whorls. Loops are prints that recurve back on themselves to form a loop shape. They are into radial loops pointing toward the radial bone and ulnar loops towards the ulnar bone. Loops account for 60% of pattern types. Whorls makeup 35% of patterns and are divided into plain/concentric, central pocket, double and accidental loops. Arches are the least common at 5% of all pattern types and create a wave-like pattern subdivided into plain and tented arches (Hawthorne 2017). The underlying principle of fingerprint identification is uniqueness and persistence as highlighted previously. As new skin cells form, they remain cemented in the existing friction ridge and furrow pattern thus even in injury unless the damage is very deep, the same pattern is always persistent. While initially the general pattern as indicated above is used to make initial comparisons and to include/exclude known fingerprints from further analysis. After this initial assessment, the ridge characteristics/ minutiae are used to identify specific points on a suspect fingerprint with the same data on a known fingerprint.

History of Fingerprinting Analysis

The earliest known use of fingerprints in modern times was because of Hershel's 1858 invention in India who required fingerprints and signatures on civil contracts (Olver, 2018). In 1880, Henry Faults published an article in Nature in which he expounded on the uniqueness of the fingerprints for each. Around the same time, Bertillon a French anthropologist developed the Bertillon system of body measurements such as standing height, sitting height, size of the head, right ear, left foot digits and forearm. Distinctive personal features such as eye color, scars, and deformities were also noted. (Bertillon system, The Oxford companion to the body). The system got brought into disrepute by the William West case who had the same Bertillon measurements thus paving the way for fingerprint use as the primary means of identification. Sir Francis Galton in 1892 published an article (Galton's details on the individuality, uniqueness, and permanence of a person's fingerprints. In 1891 the very first use of fingerprints in a forensic case was recorded in Argentina while in 1905 the military adopted the use of fingerprints paving way for public acceptance of the same.

AFIS Technique

With the electronic revolution in the 1960s, the use of fingerprints to counter the rising crime rates got considered. In 1980 the first fingerprint database, Automated Finger Identification System (AFIS) got developed (Huyuhn, 2016). AFIS popularity was propelled by its use in the city of San Francisco in 1984 with the creation of a dedicated crime scene investigation team, with its own fully equipped labs and well-trained personnel. It led to a tenfold increase in the identification of latent prints and a citywide decrease in burglary rates.

A modern Automated Fingerprint Identification System functions to search known ten print against a print database(Tenprint Inquiry (TI)), search latent print against a print database hence identifying as yet unknown suspects(Latent Inquiry (LI)), search a latent print against a latent database so as to make due connections between as yet unknown suspects and in so doing find any possible links between crimes(Latent to latent inquiry (LLI)) and lastly to search a new print against an unsolved latent database(Tenprint to Latent Inquiry (TLI)). The success of these searches depends on the clarity of images and the degree of correspondence between the search print and a database print. The success rate for latent prints is currently at 30%. The accuracy and usefulness of AFIS can get enhanced when integrating with methods such as palm prints, interface with digital mugshots and live scan devices, multimodal biometrics such as iris and facial scans and interface with other criminal justice information systems.

The parts of an AFIS process which includes image enhancement algorithms help in the improvement of quality of latent prints. The next part involves feature extraction algorithms that identify the minutiae points which are what essentially differentiates one pattern from another. These are best effective when combined with algorithms that also assess non-minutiae points such as pores and textures. When combined these two are very effective in searching for a match. The system then indexes the fingerprints hence limiting the possibility of repetitions. This greatly reduces the time taken to complete tasks. The last stage of this involves matching the actual prints. The choice of matching algorithms and has an impact on the number of potential matches, false positives and false negatives generated. This accuracy can be improved by the use of algorithms that provide a matching score for every database search and results.

The AFIS system got developed on the same principle of individuality and permanence with Sir Francis Galton. It involved calculating the possibility of two individuals sharing fingerprints to be 1 in 64 billion thus very highly unlikely. There are two types of fingerprints obtained namely tenprints/ known prints and latent prints. The identity is of the source of imprints is known in tenprints and a complete set of prints is taken from an individual and collected on a single sheet traditionally by rolling fingers in a thin coat of ink. However, this has largely been replaced by the use of electronic live scans that capture the information easily and in real time. Latent prints, on the other hand, are removed from a crime scene/physical evidence using chemical, physical and lighting techniques. The most common method for collecting latent prints is by dusting a smooth surface with fingerprint powder such as black granular, aluminum flake and black magnetic. If any prints appear, they got photographed in high resolution with a forensic measurement scale in the image for reference. They then get lifted from the surface with clear adhesive tape which is then placed on a latent lift card to preserve the print. They are subject to interference from the fingerprint powders by contamination and it's pertinent to observe the area using an alternate light source or apply superglue before using the powders.

IAFIS Technique

The Integrated Automated Fingerprint Automation System (IAFIS) is a fingerprint database run by the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) criminal justice information service. It was developed in 1999. It is the world's largest collection of criminal history containing more than 143 Million criminal and civil individuals as of February 2019. Each city force and state force to maintain its own AFIS and thus the IAFIS functions to enable local, state, federal and international law enforcement agencies to efficiently access and exchange critical information. IAFIS can perform automated...