Ethical Aspects and Moral Views of Human Cloning - Research Paper

Introduction

The rapid scientific developments in biotechnology and genetics have resulted in unforeseen potentials such as the popularity of cloning technology. Recent research studies that use a wide array of somatic cell nuclear donors have reported successful cloning in sheep, mice, cows, pigs, rabbits, and monkeys (Cibelli et al., 1998; Chesne, 2002). These developments in animal cloning have raised interest and concerns about the likelihood of human cloning. However, organizations such as the World Health Organization and the European have come out strongly against human cloning terming it unethical and calling for its ban. Similarly, the National Bioethics Advisory Commission in the USA has requested for the prohibition of cloning in children through somatic cell nuclear transfer. Undoubtedly, the use of information to achieve fetes that are injurious to the humankind not only attracts criticism from the legal sphere but also the ethical sphere. The stakeholders point out that information should be utilized to promote the welfare and not for the destruction of the humankind. Scholars such as Boila (2013) point out that human cloning is largely controversial since it spans across political, ethical, legal, and religious aspects of human rights and integrity. The concerns surrounding the topic of human cloning go as far as worries of recreation of the slavery era and even the likelihood of creation of a superhuman with unparalleled levels of intelligence. However, the proponents of human cloning argue that it is a unique opportunity to remedy the weaknesses of human beings and expand the potential of obtaining solutions to the contemporary world problems as a result of the creation of people with high levels of intelligence. In this view, the objective of this paper is to present the risks posed by the legalization of human cloning. The paper achieves this by presenting data and facts from scholarly literature and analyzing such information in relation to the subject.

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Definition and Development of Human Cloning

In order to gain a deep understanding of the ethicality of human cloning, it is important to adopt a theoretical approach to the topic. Cloning entails the creation of an animal or a plant (living organism) that is genetically identical to another one without following the usual sexual reproductive method (Crespo, 2006). Some scholars dismiss this definition and argue that twins are a product of natural cloning, a process that takes place once in every 150 births hence the position that the likelihood of natural cloning of human beings is often than expected.

According to Crespo (2006), single-celled species known as eukaryotes that had the ability to move, had a nucleus, and mitochondria were formed through the symbiosis of micro-organisms and in turn led to start of life on earth. Many years later, scientists would research and discover the functionalities of the cellular structure, the nucleus, the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and its chemical composition hence the understanding of its messages. That discovery prompted the researchers to replicate the DNA in another organism through a process now known as cloning. In reproductive cloning, the two main methods used include somatic cell nuclear transfer and embryo splitting (Bostick et al., 2006). For human cloning through the use of somatic cell nuclear transfer, the common methods used include therapeutic and reproductive. While reproductive aims at producing a person that is identical to another, therapeutic cloning focuses on the provision of compatible tissues and organs (Bostick et al., 2006). The primary difference between the two methods is that reproductive cloning involves implantation of the transnuclear egg into a woman's uterus while therapeutic cloning involves the formation of an in-vitro culture from the transnuclear egg and then extraction of stem cells (Coors, 2002).

Many medical professionals agree that reproductive cloning can be an invaluable way of helping sterile people unable to conceive through natural means have babies. On the other hand, therapeutic cloning promises many benefits given that there is a limited supply of organ supply for transplantation and the fact that the recipients have to be administered immunosuppressive medication to facilitate compatibility of the transplanted organs. In addition, therapeutic cloning provides an opportunity to gain more knowledge about the renewed activity of faulty cells as well as the much-needed insights to the cure of Alzheimer's, degenerative neuromuscular, Parkinson's, and joint diseases (Coors, 2002). Considering these benefits from a scientific standpoint, human cloning could be perceived as a historical milestone.

Ethical Considerations of Human Cloning Potential Physical Harms

One of the primary causes for concerns on human cloning is its potential to cause physical harms. According to the Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs (CEJA) of the American Medical Association (1998), somatic cell nuclear transfer is yet to be refined hence its viability and safety in the long-term unproven. Even though the International Council of Nurses (ICN) views human cloning to have positive effects on human health, it is worried by the likelihood of producing human beings with developmental anomalies.

Another ethical concern is the likelihood of developmental anomalies that have been noted in several animals cloned through somatic nuclear transfer. In these animals, the large offspring syndrome has been a huge problem in many live birth mammals. Animals with large offspring syndrome are born with oversized and unusually big internal organs and in most cases have circulatory and respiratory problems (Jaenish & Wilmut, 2001). For instance, the cloning experiment documented by Cibelli et al. (1998) had one of the cloned cows abort at day 249, which was before the end of the gestation period at 280 days. The aborted calf was bigger than normal, had a bigger than normal right ventricle, and the lung lobes were oedematous. While attempting to explain the causes of this anomaly, Jaenish and Wilmut (2001) argued that it could be failures in the genomic reprogramming which happens within a short period of nuclear cloning and these failures, in turn, lead to dysregulation of gene expression.

Another concern of human cloning is dignity and respect for human life. The issue of surplus embryos in reproductive cloning is highly controversial because it promotes the likelihood of producing more embryos than that are needed for cloning/implantation. After implantation, the excess embryos could be stored for future use or research purposes. In the case that they are not used or stored, then they would be destroyed. Even when all the embryos are implanted in a human, they would have to be reduced to facilitate healthy growth of the remainders. That practice raises several questions regarding the moral status of the human embryo, when life becomes human, and if the early embryo can be categorized as a human being worthy of all respect and dignity of a living human being. The existing literature about the moral status of embryos depicts different perspectives. However, there is a general consensus that an embryo is different from an egg, sperm, or any other cell, and that it contains the DNA. In other words, it has the potential to develop to a human being. As such, Shannon (1997); Meyer (2000) agree that a human embryo is a representation of human life that deserves respect.

Human cloning has significant potential psychological and psychosocial harms. A report by the International Council of Nurses says that human cloning violates an individual's right to their unique genetic dignity and identity (ICN, 1998). That is because human reproductive cloning would pull the genetic makeup of future offsprings to the present human control. Depending on the type of cloning, the genetic makeup and traits of a cloned human would be known hence the possibility of misuse of such information. In addition, information about the genetic makeup of a cloned person can be accessed by medical practitioners or researchers from the healthcare institution that the procedure was conducted. Unintentional or intentional disclosure of genetic information by unauthorized persons would mean a violation of confidentiality and privacy of the clone. Also, it could lead to issues of discrimination in relation to employment opportunities and healthcare insurance programs.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the discussion above illustrates some of the major concerns regarding human cloning. Proponents of human cloning could dismiss these claims as irrational and speculative but it important to analyze and discuss these concerns thoroughly. Despite the concerns, human cloning has numerous potential benefits that could change the current medical sphere.

References

BOILA, L. R. (2013). Respect for Human Dignity. Ethical and Legal Reflections Regarding the Breach of the Obligation to Inform the Patient. Postmodern Openings/Deschideri Postmodern, 4(1).

Bostick, N. A., Sade, R., McMahon, J. W., & Benjamin, R. (2006). American Medical Association Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs. Report of the American Medical Association Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs: withholding information from patients: rethinking the propriety of "therapeutic privilege.". J Clin Ethics, 17(4), 302-306.

Chesne, P., Adenot, P. G., Viglietta, C., Baratte, M., Boulanger, L., & Renard, J. P. (2002). Cloned rabbits produced by nuclear transfer from adult somatic cells. Nature Biotechnology, 20(4), 366.

Cibelli, J. B., Stice, S. L., Golueke, P. J., Kane, J. J., Jerry, J., Blackwell, C., ... & Robl, J. M. (1998). Cloned transgenic calves produced from nonquiescent fetal fibroblasts. Science, 280(5367), 1256-1258.

Coors, M. E. (2002). Therapeutic cloning: from consequences to a contradiction. The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy: A Forum for Bioethics and Philosophy of Medicine (Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 297-317). Journal of Medicine and Philosophy Inc.

Crespo, J. S. B. (2006). Clonacion: un fundamento evolucionista de los principios de dignidad e igualdad frente a la tecnica de la clonacion de seres humanos con fines reproductivos. Revista de derecho: Division de Ciencias Juridicas de la Universidad del Norte, (26), 17-60.

International Council of Nurses. (1998). Position Statement. Cloning and human health. Available from: URL: http://www.icn.ch/pscloning.htmlJaenisch, R., & Wilmut, I. (2001). Don't clone humans!. Science, 291(5513), 2552-2552.

Meyer, J. R. (2000). Human embryonic stem cells and respect for life. Journal of Medical Ethics, 26(3), 166-170.

Shannon, T. A. (1997). Fetal status: sources and implications. The Journal of medicine and philosophy, 22(5), 415-422.