Essay Sample on Perfecting Performance of Student Athletes in Field of Sport

The following research questions (RQ) serve as the basis for this investigation:

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• RQ 1. Do student-athletes differ from their nonathletic peers regarding engagement in effective educational practices?
• RQ 2. How do the Duke Model and the Olympic Model of Amateurism compare concerning addressing the academic success of student-athletes?
• RQ 3. Do rewarding collegiate student-athletes affect their performance?
• RQ 4. Do academic achievement and recognition motivate collegiate student-athletes?

Four hypotheses (H) are proposed in relation to these research questions:

• H1. Student-athletes will be engaged in fewer effective educational practice compared to non-athletes.
• H2. For student-athletes, the Duke Model is more likely to result in engagement in effective educational practice than the Olympic Model of Amateurism.
• H3. Rewarding collegiate student-athletes are more likely to influence their performance positively.
• H4. Academic achievement and recognition are likely to motivate collegiate student-athletes.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework of the study will be based on various compensation and motivation theories including reinforcement theory, Vroom's expectancy theory, Adam's equity theory, Taylor's theory of scientific management, Maslow hierarchy of need theory, and Hertzberg motivation theory. The theories help in exploring the appropriate criteria relevant in compensating student-athletes for their efforts. Furthermore, Haque, Haque & Islam, (2014), connotes that athlete motivation is a key contribution towards intensifying their effort to achieve better performance. In this case, each of the participants strives to acquire a beneficial aspect form participating in sports either through rewards, having fun, connecting with friends, or improving their skills on sports (Lee & Raschke, 2016). Therefore, coaches need to understand the motivation theories as an important avenue towards determining the most effective strategies they can use to reward their team members (Osabiya, 2015).

Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement refers to the action implemented to increase the frequency of a particular response (Lee & Raschke, 2016). In sports, coaches utilize reinforcement to boost the performance of student-athletes. Reinforcement can be either positive or negative depending on the target outcome. Positive reinforcement refers to the actions that introduce satisfying consequences to reward a desirable behavior with the aim of increasing the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in the future (Lee & Raschke, 2016). In sports, Wei & Yazdanifard, (2014) affirms that coaches utilize positive reinforcement through praising the student-athletes for achieving a particularl desirable target. Nevertheless, upon making some few mistakes, the coach can offer to train the athlete on correcting the mistakes so that they can avoid the errors in the future (Gordan, 2014). It thus motivates the collegiate student-athletes to make some progress in perfecting their performance in the field (Wei & Yazdanifard, 2014). Therefore, as a way to boost and maintain good performance, coaches employ positive reinforcement to motivate the athletes.

Coaches also utilize negative reinforcement to enhance the performance of athletes by removing an aversive response once the desired behavior has been achieved to increase the likelihood of repeating the desired behavior in the future (Lee & Raschke, 2016). For example, a coach who has been constantly criticizing a basketball player for a poor technique they apply while making free throws may stop the critics once the player makes the shot properly.

While positive and negative reinforcement allows the coaches to increase the likelihood of repeating a desirable behavior among the team memebers, the theory also proposes punishment and extinction as significant response consequences that help to decrease the possibility of repeating an undesired behavior (Lee & Raschke, 2016). According to the reinforcement theory, punishment refers to the introduction of an aversive event upon the occurrence of an undesired behavior with the aim of reducing the likelihood of this behavior happening in the future (Gordan, 2014). Punishment is often evident where a coach constantly criticizes the collegiate athletes for poor performance or errors. The critics are designed to discourage the athletes from repeating the errors in the future participation in the field. In other cases, punishment can be administered by losing privileges previously held in the team. For example, a sports team leader may lose the position of a leader and become an ordinary member of the team. Santesteban & Leffler, (2017) give an example of punishment where NCAA women basketball coach barred the team members from using their lavish lockers when they failed to perform to the coach's target expectations. After one month, the team recorded an improvement in their performance, and to this effect, the coach allowed them back to sue their lavish lockers.

According to the reinforcement, theory extinction refers to the process of removing an unsatisfying consequence once an undesired behavior occurs with the aim of preventing the likelihood of the behaviors happening in the future (Lee & Raschke, 2016). For example, a coach may consistently ignore to recognize an athlete's bad behavior in the filed with the aim of extinguishing the behavior. The four response consequences of the reinforcement theory can be summarized in the table below:

• Introducing a Consequence Removing a Consequence
• Increases the likelihood of repeating the behavior in the future Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement
• Decrease the likelihood of repeating the behavior in the future Punishment Extinction
• Vroom Expectancy Motivation Theory

In the 1960s, a Canadian professor of psychology, Victor Vroom established the expectancy theory that links effort, performance, and outcome Haque, Haque & Islam, (2014). According to Vroom, effort is determined by motivation. Lee & Raschke, (2016) asserts that this theory operates under the assumption that peoples' behaviors occur as a result of conscious choices from various alternatives whose objective is to maximize pleasure and minimize discomfort. In this case, Vroom identified that the performance of an individual is linked to motivation whereby, when a person is more motivated, they tend to exhibit better performance (Haque, Haque & Islam, 2014). Through Vrooms expectancy theory, sports coaches' link expectation and performance with the aim of streamlining athletes' behaviors to achieve particular outcomes.

As stated by Osabiya, (2015), Vroom uses three key variables including expectancy, instrumentality, and valence to stress the relationship between performance and motivation. Expectancy refers to the belief that an increase in effort will lead to an increase in performance (Haque, Haque & Islam, 2014). It is enhanced by aspects such as the availability of the appropriate resources, possessing the right skills, and acquiring the necessary support to complete the tasks. In sports, coaches employ this variable to enhance the student athlete's performance (Osabiya, 2015). It is evident where coaches provide essential support to the athletes through training, acknowledging good performance, and providing the guidelines necessary to perfect the sports skills (Lee & Raschke, 2016).

According to Badubi, (2017), Vroom defines instrumentality as the idea that upon showing good performance, there is a subsequent desirable outcome often provided through rewards (Lee & Raschke, 2016). Instrumentality depends on various aspects such as the clear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcome and the transparency of the process undertaken while deciding the person eligible for the outcome (Haque, Haque & Islam, 2014). Valence refers to the value the individual places regarding the outcome. In this case, the outcome should aid in driving the individual to achieve the desired performance (Badubi, 2017).

The figure shows the relationship that exists among effort, performance, and outcome while accounting for the three variable; expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.

According to the Vroom, motivation is, therefore, a product of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence (Badubi, 2017). Coaches' utilize this model in determining the level of motivation in the team. Based on Vroom's theory, athletes show excellent performance when they have high expectation about the reward they will receive (Osabiya, 2015). Therefore, a strong the link between the outcome and performance leads to higher levels of motivation.

Stacey Adam's Equity Theory

In 1963, John Stacey Adam, a behavioral psychologist developed the equity theory which stresses the idea that rewards and conditions alone do not contribute to motivating the team members (Lee & Raschke, 2016). Further, Adam suggests that providing rewards and benefits to one member in a team may act as a demotivating factor to other members of the team (Badubi, 2017). In this case, the theory assumes that once the team members feel that they are receiving fair treatment, they are more likely to be more motivated. Nevertheless, once they feel that they are receiving an unfair treatment, then, they may end feeling dissatisfied and demotivated (Osabiya, 2015).

The theory, therefore, asserts that team members seek to acquire and maintain equity while comparing the inputs they bring to the organization and the outcomes that they receive in return for these inputs (Badubi, 2017). This should also relate to the inputs and outputs for other members of the team. The theory, therefore, operates under the belief that people often value fair and equal treatment which keeps them motivated as a strategy to maintain the spirit of fairness which governs their relationships with the colleagues and the entire organization. Lee & Raschke, (2016) suggest that unlike Vroom's expectancy theory that tend to link efforts to rewards, Adam uses the words inputs and outputs to establishing the motivating factor based on the relationship between the performance and outcome of team members.

Adam defines inputs as what team members give to complete the task. The contributions the athletes make to boost their performance can be either qualitative or quantitative (Badubi, 2017). It includes aspects such commitment, loyalty, flexibility, determination, personal sacrifice, effort, hard work, and support from peers (Osabiya, 2015). On the other hand, Adam defines outputs as what the team members get in return after proving the inputs (Lee & Raschke, 2016). The outputs are thus positive or negative consequences which can be either tangible or intangible. They include aspects such as job security, recognition, salaries, expenses, praise, and the sense of achievement. While inputs and outputs are the major concern of equity theory, Adam further assets that money is the primary concern that creates either equity or inequality (Lee & Raschke, 2016). In a situation where an individual feels underpaid, they end up feeling unfairly treated making them feel hostile towards their colleagues and the entire organization (Badubi, 2017). As a result, these people may end performing poorly due to lack of motivation. In collegiate sports, motivation is based on the level to w...