Amphetamines: Stimulants, Street Names, and Forms - Essay Sample

Introduction

Amphetamines, also referred to as a-methylphenethylamines, are a class of psychotropic compounds with the stimulant, anorectic, and euphoric properties (Carvalho et al., 2012). These drugs are classified as stimulants since they increase the activity of certain chemicals in the brain. The trade names for amphetamines include Adderal, Dexedrine, and Evekeo. Amphetamines' street names include ice, speed, meth, crystal meth, or rock.

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Forms of Amphetamines

Amphetamines exist in other ways, namely: dexamphetamine, amphetamine sulphate, cathinone, ephedrine, and methamphetamine. These drugs are psychoanaleptic, hallucinogenic, and empathogenic.

Drug Use/Administration

Amphetamines can be snorted, swallowed, injected, or smoked.

Drug Use/Misuse Data in the United States

According to Hart, Ksir, and Ray (2013), there are fewer users and abusers of amphetamines compared to drugs such as marijuana, opioids, and cocaine. When methamphetamine had gained its popularity, it was recorded that a million individuals used the medicine in 30 days. It is a relatively lower number against 2.5 million cocaine users, 4.4 million opioid abusers, and 15 million marijuana smokers at that time (Hart, Ksir, & Ray, 2013). In 2007, around 3 million Americans used amphetamines illegally (Rasmussen, 2008). Of these, between 250000 to 350000 were addicted to amphetamine-type stimulants.

Further, it is indicated that the number of heavy users of amphetamines with addiction problems was set to double between the years 2002 and 2004 (Rasmussen, 2008). A more recent survey by Piper et al. (2018) indicates a 2.5 fold increase in the use of amphetamines between 2006 and 2016. This value means that 20.0 tons of the drugs were consumed in 2016 from 7.9-ton consumption in 2006. Similarly, the data on the consumption per municipality showed significant growth of 7.6% (Piper et al., 2018). A comparison of the use of amphetamines in the West, Northeastern, and Midwestern states reveals discrepancies. The Northeastern states post enormous numbers of amphetamines misuse of 75.4mg per person. The Midwestern states record 69.9% per person, while the West is the least with 48.1mg per person (Piper et al., 2018). Notably, Piper et al. (2018) indicate that states with relatively large Hispanic populations registered lower levels of the misuse of amphetamines. States with the highest increase in the use of the stimulants between 2006 and 2016 include Florida, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, and Washington DC. Those that registered net reductions within the same period include Maine, Pennsylvania, North Dakota, and West Virginia (Piper et al., 2018). By 2015, 900,000 people reported their use of methamphetamine (Hart, Ksir, & Ray, 2013). This value is 0.3% of America's population aged 12years and above.

Pharmacology/Toxicology and Psychological Effects

Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887. Later, the sympathomimetic and central stimulant properties of the drug were discovered (Moore, 1978). In the 1920s, the potentiality of amphetamine as a possible substitute for ephedrine was located (Wilens & Spencer, 1998). As such, amphetamine was availed to the public without prescription as an inhaler for the treatment of asthma. Eventually, Benzedrine tablets were manufactured. The name amphetamine is derived from the chemical designation of the compounds alpha-methyl-phenethyl-amine (Wilens & Spencer, 1998). These are chemically similar to adrenaline; the hormone that is secreted by the adrenal gland. Adrenaline is a central nervous system stimulant and amphetamines, when injected into the body, serve a similar purpose. However, once amphetamines are introduced into the body, they are poorly metabolized. It may take the body up to 3 days to eliminate 20mg of the drug.

According to Hoffman (1990), amphetamine is structurally similar to compounds with pharmacological actions such as antidepressants and hallucinogens. Amphetamine is prescribed for the treatment of Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) due to its activity on metabolism, smooth muscles, and the central nervous system (Wilens & Spencer, 1998). Further, amphetamines have proven to be effective therapeutics of depression, obesity, and Parkinson's disease (Wilens & Spencer, 1998). It affects neurotransmitters such as indoleamines and catecholamines and its strong peripheral effects on the adrenergic receptors results in the elevation of blood pressure. The dependency on amphetamines is attributed to its anorectic, insomniac, and euphorogenic properties. Additionally, the drug was initially (in the 1960s) readily available to individuals without prescription hence contributing to its abuse.

Amphetamines increase dopamine concentration in the synaptic gap. The drug enters the terminal button of the presynaptic neurons through dopamine transporters and the neural membrane. When the amphetamines reach the presynaptic neuron, dopamine molecules are forced out of their storage vesicles resultantly expelling them into the synaptic gap. The dopamine transporters start working in reverse. Additionally, amphetamines reduce dopamine reuptake. When used in high concentrations, amphetamines inhibit monoamine oxidase.

Two parts of the brain are affected by the intake of amphetamines. These include the reticular activating system and the medial forebrain bundle (Ferrucci et al., 2019). The former part is responsible for controlling the extent of brain activation. It arouses the brain and prepares it to receive and process different sensory inputs. The intake of amphetamine stimulates the reticular activating system without sensory input. In turn, an individual becomes alert, aroused, and hypersensitive (Ferrucci et al., 2019). A continual high activation leads to anxiety. The medial forebrain bundle also referred to as the reward system, is affected by amphetamines. Low doses of amphetamine results in a feeling of pleasure and this are attributed to increased activation in the reward system. Amphetamine affects the cardiovascular system. Depending on the quantity taken, one may suffer palpitation, chest pain, or cardiovascular collapse (Ferrucci et al., 2019). The gastrointestinal system can also be affected such that one may vomit, diarrhoea, or cramp. Chronic abuse of the drug can result in acute transient ischaemic colitis.

Causes for Concern

Repercussions accompany the use of amphetamines at doses which are higher than usual. These effects depend on the quantity used.

Acute Toxicity

High doses of amphetamines over an extended period cause paranoia (Hart, Ksir, & Ray, 2013). Episodes of suspicion succeed this. Further, acute toxicity breeds sleeplessness and a lack of appetite for food. As such, an individual's physical and mental well-being is compromised.

Chronic Toxicity

The long-term use of amphetamines causes paranoid psychosis. The IV administration of the drug especially causes this. Amphetamines cause dopaminergic stimulation in the mesolimbic system resulting in paranoid psychosis (Hart, Ksir, & Ray, 2013). Notably, once the drug leaves the body, paranoia and loss of touch with reality slowly normalizes.

Dependence Potential

Amphetamines work to change the brain's behavior. Depending on the quantities in which the drug is administered, amphetamines produce toxicity in specific areas of the brain (Ferrucci et al., 2019). Also affected are the peripheral organs which receive dense innervations by the sympathetic nervous system. As such, the pleasure receptors in the brain are damaged, inherently destroying the brain's pleasure response. Consequently, an individual is unable to feel any pleasure unless they are under the influence of amphetamines, and this is a precursor for dependency.

Social Issues

Wilens and Spencer (1998) conducted a study to determine the effects of amphetamine on social processing and behavior. The researchers discovered that amphetamines reduced a person's ability to identify any kind of emotion. On the other hand, the drugs increased one's negative facial responses to sad situations as well as talkativeness. This research indicates that the prolonged use of amphetamines is likely to affect a person's social relationships owing to the lack of emotional connectivity. Problems with finances can also arise due to addiction which compels an individual to spend money on the drugs or their inability to hold down a job. Colfax and Shoptaw (2005) indicate that the misuse of amphetamines contributes to the spread of diseases such as HIV/AIDS. It is attributed to the fact that the drug motivates a user to engage in risky sexual behavior. Additionally, intravenous administration of the drug contributes to the occurrence of skin infections hence resulting in an increased risk for the contraction of HIV/AIDS.

Current Beneficial Uses of Amphetamines

Amphetamines are used in the treatment of depression (Hart, Ksir, & Ray, 2013). The drugs are preferred over standard antidepressant medications owing to their (amphetamines) rapid effects. As well, amphetamines are used to treat obesity by reducing one's appetite for food intake for short periods. Narcolepsy, a sleep disorder, can be managed by the administration of amphetamines. These stimulate the patient and keep them awake during the day so they can rest at night. Also, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) can be managed by amphetamines.

Overall Health Impact of Amphetamines

Amphetamines are useful only when administered in the prescribed quantities and for particular conditions such as obesity and ADHD. Otherwise, the drugs are lethal based on the fact that they act on the brain. Amphetamines increase the activity of monoamine neurotransmitters resulting in euphoria and consequent dependence. Understandably, it is easy to become addicted to the drug as one always craves the pleasurable feelings accompanied by its intake. It is, therefore, a relief to note that the use and misuse of the drug are on a downward trend.

Approaches to Prevention/Mitigation

American Addiction Centers recommends cognitive and dialectical behavioral therapy, motivational interviewing, and family counseling, among other techniques, for the management of amphetamine addiction (What's an amphetamine? Addiction: signs, symptoms, and treatment, 2019). Over time, an addict can overcome the urge for amphetamine use despite the associated changes in the brain structure. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime indicates that amphetamine use can be mitigated by starting health promotion activities to delay the onset of use in a targeted population (Preventing amphetamine-type stimulant use among young people). Treatment plans must complement these. Notably, the classification of amphetamines as schedule 2 drugs by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) limits the use and abuse of amphetamines. Whereas the access to this drug was initially possible without a prescription, it is now only available through a license for prescriptions.

In addition to these approaches, the abuse of amphetamines can be prevented by the use of alternative medicines for the treatment and control of conditions such as ADHD and obesity. The risk factors for these conditions must be identified and avoided so that there is no progression to the need for a cure. Also, individuals must be on the lookout for cases of mental illness. It is known that mental illness and drug abuse are complementary. People with mental health issues often suffer depression or anxiety and may resort to the use of amphetamines for relief. Mental health patients must be accorded the necessary help before to avoid instances of amphetamine use and abuse.

References

Carvalho, M., Carmo, H., Costa, V. M., Capela, J. P., Pontes, H., Remiao, F., ... & de Lourdes Bastos, M. (2012). Toxicity of a...