Research Paper on Causes of Drug Addiction

Introduction

Drug Addiction is a progressively relapsing disorder which is typified by the compulsions or urges to seek and consume drugs, one's lack of control in constraining one's drug intake or consumption, and the inception of a negative emotional state, exhibiting a motivational or impetus withdrawal syndrome in instances where the accessibility of the drug is impeded (Miller, 2013). Drug addiction incorporates three primary phases: anticipation or preoccupation phase, intoxication or binge stage, and the negative affect or withdrawal phase (Miller, 2013). The stages mentioned above often feed into each other to generate a cycle of addiction. Every phase becomes significantly intense after every cycle and this subsequently leads to the pathological addiction state. The stages in drug addiction evince aspects such as stress surfeits or reward deficits, pathological behaviors, incentive salience, and deficits in executive functioning which create a strong impulse for compulsive or irresistible drug-seeking behaviors associated with the addiction to a particular drug (Neis, 2013).

Is your time best spent reading someone else’s essay? Get a 100% original essay FROM A CERTIFIED WRITER!

Save 25%

The dysfunction domains mentioned above correspond or correlate with the neuro-adaptations which underscore the allostatic changes in the three major neuro-circuits (prefrontal cortex, extended amygdala, and basal ganglia) that are responsible for mediating uncontrollable drug-seeking urges (Neis, 2013). Drug addiction is a crucial problem globally which impacts a significant portion of the populace both indirectly and directly. According to a national study on health and drug use conducted in the United States by the SAMHSA (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration), approximately 8.7 percent of the United States populace between the age of twelve and above underwent treatment due to alcohol or drug abuse issues during the year 2010; this is equivalent to 22.1 million individuals (Yuchinich & Heather, 2013). According to the study, approximately fifteen million individuals sought medical treatment due to alcohol dependence whereas around 2.9 million individuals received treatment for both illegal drugs and alcohol dependence (Yuchinich & Heather, 2013). There are various factors that trigger an individual's dependence and addiction on drugs. These factors may be analyzed using three primary perspectives: Individual differences, psychobiological, and social psychology perspectives. The paper critically discusses and integrates these factors.

Psychobiological Perspective Concerning the Causes of Drug Addiction

Addiction is an intricate disorder whose complexity can be mirrored using psychobiological perspectives. Although drugs manifest their effects through different receptor systems, multiple regions of the brain may be involved in the overall abuse of drugs (Panksepp, Knutson, & Burgdorf, 2012). The regions of the brain that are susceptible to drug reward include the mesolimbic dopamine pathway regions, for instance, the NAcc (nucleus accumbens), and the VTA (ventral tegmental area) (Barret, Geary, Steiner, &Bevins, 2017). The brain's susceptibility towards drug reward extends towards the PFC (prefrontol cortex), a region responsible for the executive functioning of the brain and decisions regarding drug intake (Render & Jansen, 2019). The dopamine reward path plays a critical role in enhancing the robust drug reward. Render & Jansen (2019) suggests that non-dopaminergic mechanisms also play a significant role in drug reward. The limbic system (this includes the hippocampus, NAcc, and VTA) is crucial in memory processes, drive, and emotions which impact addiction. The HPA-axis also plays a critical role in influencing continued drug intake, relapse, and withdrawal (Burke, & Miczek, 2014).

Neurotransmitters

Existing studies focus primarily on the role of neurotransmitter mechanisms in enhancing the effects of drugs and the development of drug addiction (Panksepp, Knutson, & Burgdorf, 2012). Various drugs often act on different neurotransmitter mechanisms. Nonetheless, almost all drugs of abuse ultimately trigger the significant increases in dopamine within its reward pathway (mesolimbic dopamine system) (Render & Jansen, 2019). Neurotransmitter systems which are responsible for enhancing the impacts of a particular drug include the dopamine system (e.g. MDMA and stimulants), serotonin (e.g. hallucinogens and MDMA), opioid system (alcohol, codeine, and heroin),cannabinoid system, and the glutamate and GABA system (e.g. benzodiazepines and alcohol) (Barret et al.,2017). Irrespective of their direct roles in drug effects many of these systems play a critical role in enhancing one's susceptibility to drug addiction (Barret et al., 2017).

Stress and HPA-Axis (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal)

Stress may increase one's susceptibility to drug addiction and trigger relapse to drug use and alcohol consumption following an abstinence period. According to Burke & Miczek (2014), stress plays a critical role in relapse and it enhances one's compulsion to drug use. Since drug abusers usually persist with their drug abuse behavior to avoid withdrawal, the negative reinforcement effects of substances may be more significant that the positive reinforcement impacts (Courtney, Schacht, Hutchison, Roche, & Ray, 2016). Burke & Miczek (2014) suggest that CRF (corticotropin releasing factor) plays a critical part in the process of drug addiction. According to the Burke & Miczek (2014), CRF is a critical element that is deemed essential in the modulation or regulation process of HPA-axis (Hypothalamic-Pituitary- Adrenal) in response to distress. Burke & Miczek (2014) further suggest that CRF enhances the negative reinforcing impacts of drugs following a prolonged use of the drug.

Immune System

The psychobiological perspective of drug addiction also associates the immune system with the behaviors associated with drug addiction. The immune system may alter the brain's neuronal signaling which, in turn, impacts aspects such as cognition and behavior (Miller, 2013). A large section of the brain contains supportive non-neuronal tissues, for instance, the glia, which plays a critical part in regulating the functioning of the brain (Neis, 2013). According to Neis (2013), glia processes usually impact GABA signaling and glutamate's neuronal signaling. Moreover, the immune modulator known as the cytokines often play a role in the creation of a pro-inflammatory phase which may, in turn, affect the body's response to consequent challenges such as stressors or illnesses (Han et al., 2015). The immune system may increase the risks for various psychopathologies, for instance, pain, depression, and addiction in instances where the body is in a pro-inflammatory state (Han et al., 2015). Animal studies reveal that postnatal distress may trigger a pro-inflammatory state in mice and this consequently influences drug withdrawal in these animals (Panksepp, Knutson, & Burgdorf, 2012). Changes in the body's immune system are, therefore, have the capacity to influence drug rewards directly. The immune system impacts drug addiction behaviors through its interaction with various critical systems such as the HPA-axis and dopamine, which are crucial in enhancing addiction behaviors (Burke & Miczek, 2014).

Recent advancements in genetic studies and imaging have enhanced the capacity to examine the biology associated with human addiction to drugs. Twin studies reveal that both genetic factors and shared environment, for instance, socio-economic factors, have a significantly strong impact on the inception of drug use (Cross, Lotfipour & Leslie, 2017). Genes implicated in reward, learning, attention, anxiety, stress, and memory processing are the current focus of drug addiction research (Cross, Lotfipour & Leslie, 2017). According to Lesch & Merschdorf (2012), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disease and increased impulsivity may be associated with the increased probability of addiction, mainly due to the tendencies associated with the early experimentation with alcohol or drugs. Major life traumas or events may also increase the susceptibility to develop alcohol or drug dependence (Ruisoto & Contador 2019). Some of the factors associated with addiction include social factors, for example, parental and peer attitudes, differences or disparities in enzyme activities, for instance alcohol metabolism, and the sensitivity to rewards, for instance, polymorphisms within the dopamine receptors (Han et al., 2015). Courtney et al., (2016) suggest that neurobiological differences associated with the stress-induced relapses, responsiveness to cues, or the severity of cravings strongly influence how easily individuals quit addictive behaviors such as smoking. Drug addiction is a complex disorder that is regulated by various genes. Current studies emphasize the role of genes in enhancing drug addiction through environmental interactions and the polymorphisms' impacts in genetic pathways involved in the psychobiology of addiction (Cross, Letfipour, & Leslie, 2017). Developments in the diverse array of imaging techniques play a critical role in enhancing our understanding concerning the regions of the brain that are involved in responses to related cues and drug effects. Imaging techniques foster our capacity to understand the differences that exist in the brain's decision-making tasks, and responses to cues within the environment which are subsequently critical in fostering our comprehension regarding the underlying psychobiology of addiction (Perry, Zbukyic, Kim, & Lawrence, 2014).

The study of the causes of drug addiction using psychobiological perspectives has significant advantages. First, psychobiological perspectives provide clear predictions; this means that expositions may be tested scientifically and supported with evidence (Neis, 2013). Psychobiological perspectives foster our capacity to investigate or examine aspects associated with genetic inheritance, for instance, the role of genetic inheritance in enhancing drug use. Secondly, it allows us to explore the knowledge associated with physiology and their impacts in enhancing the consumption of drugs; it fosters our ability to analyze the functioning of the nervous system, the functioning of the brain and how the alterations in its functioning and structure may affect behavior, for example, drug addiction (Neis, 2013). Thirdly, it fosters the comparative analysis of studies and underscores objective measurement; it enhances our ability to study and compare different animal species. The comparative analysis of studies plays a critical role in fostering our understanding regarding human behavior. Some of the drawbacks associated with this procedure include humanism in the sense that humans cannot be compared to animals. Secondly, psychobiological perspectives do not put significant emphasis on life experiences and environmental influences on behavior (Neis, 2013). Lastly, the perspective is typified by reductionism; it only evaluates the psychological and biological cause of behavior, thereby, simplifying the disorder.

Individual Differences

Studies aimed at analyzing the susceptibility to drug abuse or misuse as a function of the level of genetic associations amid people establishes the significant role of genetics in drug addiction. Susceptibility to the development of alcohol and drug dependence fluctuates with the extent of shared inheritance (Cross, Letfipour, & Leslie, 2017). Fraternal twins have lower concordance rates than identical twins even in instances where the shared environ...