Mackie's Argument on Queerness & Internalism - Essay Sample

Explain Mackie's argument from queerness and how it presupposes a kind of motivational internalism.

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Mackie's argument begins with a certain empirical observation that there exists an enormous amount of moral views variations whereby the disagreements in the moral sense are mainly featured by the anomalous degree of intractability. According to Mackie, the best way to explain the phenomena is that moral judgments often gives a reflection adherence to being involved in different ways of life. In the book, ethics by the Pinger, the only adequate responses would be showing how one empiricist foundation can construct an account of the ideas as well as the beliefs and knowledge of all the matters. This I relevant to the question because it reveals a counter-argument to that of queerness where one might deny the empirical premise basing on the fact that moral disagreement is not widespread.

Explain why, according to Ayer, ethical sentences are neither analytical nor empirical.

Ethical sentences, according to Ayer, are neither analytical nor empirical because most of the religious claims are normally taken as meaningless. They might give an expression of something and not propositions. In a bid to maintain the general consistency of his position and also to avoid any possible commitment to the irreducibly unverifiable normative properties, his positivism meant that he had to come up with the normal ethical claims giving something apart from the common propositions. From Pinger's context, the claims provide an expression of the motivational states of mind, which are non- cognitive emotions in particular. Therefore, it is because of this that the Ayer brand of non-cognitivism is normally regarded as emotivism.

Explain the difference between normative ethics and metaethics, and provide an example of a normative ethical sentence and a metaethical sentence.

Metaethics ethics incorporates the nature of ethics as well as moral reasoning. Some of the examples of the meta-ethical discussions include the discussions on whether ethics is relative. On the other hand, normative ethics deals with the determination of the content of people's moral behavior (Schroeder, 2017). The normative moral theories examples are the theories of Kant and Bentham, which seek to give the guidelines for determining the certain cause of moral action.

Explain what the argument from relativity is and why Mackie rejects it.

The argument from the relativity starts with an empirical kind of observation revealing that there is an enormous amount of variation in the moral views. In this case, the moral disagreements are mainly featured by the unusual degree of intractability. Mackie rejects this statement because it does not reflect the adherence to as well as participation in different ways of life (36). He argues that moral disagreement is not as widespread as it is often postulated or even much of the disagreement masks, which are conspicuous give an extensive moral agreement. Additionally, one might accept the moral disagreement phenomenon at the face value but deny that the best explanation, in this case, supports the error theory (37).

Explain the difference between motivational internalism and motivational externalism in relation to the problem of psychopathy

Internalism involves a thesis that there is no truth about the world that can give the reasons for the actions which are independently of beliefs and desires. Externalism, on the other hand, involves the thesis that reasons are mainly to be identified with the world's objective features. The two terms involve the opposing ways of explaining the various subjects in several philosophical areas. These include knowledge, justification, truth, and meaning.

Explain what the Euthyphro problem is in relation to divine command theory.

Euthyphro problem is a philosophical problem that is concerned with the view of morality, which is related to theism. The Euthyphro dilemma reveals that either God commands that something is right by its nature, or it is because God commands it to be right. The drawing of the links between what is right and wrong, as in the case of Euthyphro's problem and what God commands and forbids, is what is called the Divine Command Theory (DCT).

Explain Darwin's account of the origin of the moral sense/conscience. How does morality contribute to reproductive fitness?

Charles Darwin uses his theory of evolution to explain the origin of morality through the study of animals, especially mammals. The theory of moral sense reveals that humans have an aspect of the natural social instincts, which in turn gives them a sense of morality, which is naturally occurring. According to Darwin, human beings, just like animals, are the descendants of the natural selection. It is not only the mental capacity that evolved but also the moral sense. Morality contributes to reproductive fitness through the aspect of natural selection.

Explain under what conditions Hume would say that the following sentence provides an individual with a reason for action: "Selling your SUV will significantly reduce your carbon footprint."

The above sentence, according to Hume, would mean that a reason alone cannot produce any action or even give rise to volition. He argues that it is incapable of preventing volition or even f disputing the preference with any passion or emotion. Men often act knowingly against their interest, for which reason the view of the greatest possible good does not always influence them. Men usually work in counteracting violent passion in the prosecution of their interest as well as designs both the principles operate on the will and where they are contrary that either of them prevails according to the general character or present disposition of the person. The decisions concerning the moral rectitude and depravity, according to Hume, are perceptions, and all the perceptions are either impressions or ideas, the exclusion of one is a convincing argument for the other (162). That is why he states that "Selling your SUV will significantly reduce your carbon footprint."

Explain the difference between the metaphysics and the epistemology of ethics, and provide an example of a sentence within each.

Metaphysics involves a branch of physiology which deals with the first principles of existence and seeks to define the basic concepts, for instance, causality, existence substance, time, and space. It mainly focuses on how reality, as well as the universe, began an example of the metaphysics involves the study of God versus the Big Bang theory. Ontology is one of the metaphysics branch dealing with the study of being. Epistemology involves the study of nature and the scope of knowledge and also justified belief. Its analysis is mainly based on knowledge and how it relates to similar notions, for instance, belief, truth, and justification. Besides, the skepticism and the study of the production of knowledge is incorporated in this field. There the main examples, in this case, are truth, justification, and belief.

Explain what, according to Smith, the objectivity and practicality requirements of moral realism are and why they cannot be satisfied simultaneously.

The objectivity in morality is the belief that morality is universal i.e., it is not up for the interpretation. Objective morality states that morality exists in nature, and it defines how humans were programmed. According to other people, it is a commandment from God. While there are still many of the interpretations of the religious texts, the apologists tend to point out some of the universal laws which God has made, for example, the Ten Commandments. The practical effects of the objective morality in the moral realism it to make the ideal moral code of the naturalists similar to the principles of universalizability. The requirements cannot be satisfied simultaneously because the satisfaction of one of the requirements is important for the other to be satisfied. Hence the two are linearly dependent.

PART II

What are Thrasymachus' definitions of morality? How are they related to the fictitious email above?

According to Thrasymachus, ' morality involves the rules or conventions which are imposed on others, especially by those in powers mainly for their interest. Therefore being immoral is to one's advantage; however, being moral is normally beneficial to one, but if a person becomes immoral without suffering, he will become a fool not to be immoral. The act of giving morality appearance is far much better, acting morally. From the above fictitious email, the beneficial aspect of immorality has been evident where the cheat sheet exam had been distributed to the whole class to pass exams and survive the existing pandemic of coronavirus. Therefore, this relates to Thrasymachus' theory of morality, where people have been left to do things for their self-interest. The students want to give moral appearance while, in reality, there is an aspect of immorality that came in in the name of escaping the coronavirus pandemic.

b. What are Socrates' criticisms of Thrasymachus' definitions? What are the analogies Socrates uses to make these criticisms, and why are they relevant?

Thrasymachus' reveals that Socrates cannot make mistakes. Socrates criticizes the argument demonstrating that as a ruler, the chief interests of the ruler needs to be the interests of his subjects, just the way in which the interest of the physicians needs to be his patients' welfare. Socrates objects that the rulers are as humans and bound in making mistakes (Welton, 2006). In this case, the obedience to the laws would work to the disadvantage of the rulers. Thrasymachus promptly responds by revealing that a man will make mistakes by the ruling is not at that moment a ruler in the strict sense and uses the analogy of the craftsman to support the idea. The analogies used by Socrates are therefore relevant since they address on the point of in all that he asserts, which are exercised in a view to the subject's benefit as opposed to the artisan's benefit. In relation to the above fictitious email, the coronavirus is affecting the right of people to do the right and just thing.

How is the debate between Socrates and Thrasymachus related to at least one metaethical topic discussed in the course so far?

The debate between Socrates and Thrasymachus are related to one of the metaethical topics in that Thrasymachus claims that injustice is freer and also stronger that it results in a happier life. He even does not consider so much of what justice is as what it does. This is thus related to metaethics in that in the name of morality, it has flourished, especially during the cultural diversity's historical periods and flux. A comparable interest in the metaethics has dominated the moral discourse as the theorists have struggled to respond to the destabilization of the traditional symbol's authority.

Would you be more inclined to agree with the analysis of Socrates or Thrasymachus? Why?

I would be inclined to Socrates' analysis because, as it is depicted by Socrates, the good consequences of being moral are not what makes actions good rather, actions have good consequences because they are taken as good in themselves. The act of immorality is due to the ignorance of good. Plato reveals that the balancing elements of the soul define good. That is why it would be more inclined to the Socrates' analysis.

References

Froding, B., & Osika, W. (2015). Some Key Elements of Virtue Ethics. In Neuroenhancement: how mental training and meditation can promote epistemic virtue. (pp. 73-98). Springer, Cham.

Welton, W. A. (2006). Thrasymachus vs. Socrates: what counts as a good answer to the question'What is Justice'?(Republic 336b-9b). Apeiron, 39(4), 293-318.

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