20th Century American Indian Removals and Urbanization - Research Paper

Introduction

At the start of the 20th century, the American Indian groups that had not been affected by European contact were redistributed through American Indian removals, the establishment of reservation systems, as well as subsequent elimination. Urbanization also played a significant role in the redistribution of American Indians. For instance, while only 0.4% of American Indians lived in urban centers in 1900, the number had risen to 13.4% and 56.2% in 1950 and 1990, respectively (Smelser, Wilson, & Mitchell, 2001). More American Indians moved into the cities and towns as the year went by. The 1953 termination policy by the U.S. government eliminated most of the government support given to American Indians in an attempt to assimilate them into the mainstream culture (National Archives, 2016). The policy was the main driver of the urban migration stated above. However, they struggled to adjust to life in the cities and faced unemployment. They also faced discrimination, homesickness, as well as the loss of their traditional cultural supports. Despite this fact, American Indians changed the face of American cities. Today, huge populations of American Indians are found in some of the country's big cities such as New York, Oklahoma City, Phoenix, among others. The New York City harbors the largest population of American Indians in the country. This study, therefore, was carried out in New York City, since the city is highly populated with the people. The study sought to find out the effects that modernity has had on the practices of these people. The study was carried in summer to coincide with the Thunderbird American Indian Mid-Summer Pow Wow.

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Changes Brought by Modernity

Ethnographers and historians expected several changes to occur in the American Indian population in the 21st century, particularly due to urbanization and intermarriage. As more American Indians got into contact with Blacks, Whites, and other races, they increasingly married non-Indians. For instance, it is estimated that 60% of American Indians are married to non-Indians today (Smelser, Wilson, & Mitchell, 2001). Urbanization was also expected to significantly lead to a decrease in the sense of tribal identity. These factors were expected to affect both the tribal and genetic distinctiveness of this population (Smelser, Wilson, & Mitchell, 2001). Looking at the findings of this study, the expectations have become a reality. However, to understand the effect that modernity has had on this population, it is important to explore the lives they led and the practices they engaged in before contact.

American Indians in Their Traditional Environment

Traditionally, especially in the Paleo-Indian period, American Indians were nomadic. Over the years, they developed various skills to enable them to survive, such as basketry and development of tools. They also developed more understanding of their environments and started exploiting them for food and other needs. They also had developed systems of governance and practiced extensive religious ceremonies and rituals. For instance, the Green Corn Ritual was among the most important religious festivities. It was celebrated to mark the ripening of corn crop in late summer. During this ritual, village members were supposed to cleanse their environments and have a new beginning at the personal and spiritual levels. The council house and family homes were cleaned, the people fasted, bathed, and forgave the past wrongs. The accumulated foodstuffs from the previous year were also destroyed as a sign of gratefulness to nature's bounty (Warren, 2015). Unfortunately, the American Indians living in New York City, as well as other urban areas in the country, do not practice these rituals as established in this study.

American Indians in New York City

From the interactions made during the study, it was evident that the American Indians living in New York City had lost their identity and hence every day is a struggle to regain their culture, language, religion, health and lives (Meza, 2015). The situation they live in makes it more difficult for them to achieve this. For instance, research has shown that most American Indians depend on welfare. Also, more American Indians are killed by police as compared to any other group in the country, and the rates of incarceration in this group are also high (Brown, Dickerson, & D'Amico, 2016). Moreover, repressive laws make their situation worse. As observed during the study, most American Indians are not proficient in English and generally have inferior educations. This exacerbates their problems and society takes advantage of it. The biggest challenge that the study found was the grabbing of the American Indian land by white people. Resultantly, their sacred grounds have been desecrated and they cannot perform the rituals they used to perform anymore.

Besides, archeologists and anthropologists were blamed for spoiling various sacred sites and objects in their quest to understand the people and their practices better. As a result, people cannot carry out their traditional religious rituals like in the past. Due to their lack of education, they can successfully sue these people though there exist laws to protect their sacred grounds and objects. The people also feel that the policies that various governments have passed to help assimilate them in the society were a way of enabling the Whites to colonize them. The majority felt that their interests were not considered when such policies were passed. They also blame these policies for the poverty they live in the cities, as well as the other challenges that they face in the city.

It was a general feeling that their lives would have been better had they not been relocated from their traditional locations. Living in the cities has also led to intermarriage and hence people are gradually forgetting these practices. The major concern among the population, especially the senior members, was that their traditions and practices would entirely die if the trend persisted. The thunderbird's American Indian Mid-Summer Pow Wow offered another excellent opportunity to observe the changes that have occurred in this population over the years. The festival is the largest and oldest in the city. The event is usually intertribal and multi-ethnic. Dance competition between the various tribes is the festival's main agenda. It features powwow dances from various places around the country and the generous spirit of sharing comes alive in a big way during the festival. The greatest insight obtained from the festival is that though the culture of American Indians is suppressed, it is not significant. The dynamism of the dancing styles was solid proof of this. The people also wear traditional dresses during this festival and Native American foods are served (Cote, 2016). Visitors can also buy souvenirs from several arts, jewelry, and craft vendors.

Analysis and Reflection

From the study, it is clear that the American Indians are still struggling to thrive in their new environments. With inferior education, modern lives often prove to be too difficult for them. This is evidenced by the high levels of poverty within this population, the high dependence on welfare, as well as the high rates of incarceration. Resultantly, their daily lives are a struggle to regain control over their lives and culture. Besides, the people have gradually lost their traditions and they are increasingly worried that with time, their culture will die. Urbanization and intermarriage stand out as the major causes of these changes. However, the people see the hand of the government in all their woes. The policies that have been made by various administrations did not consider their interests. Moreover, they gave the bigger communities an avenue to exploit and even attempt to colonize the American Indians. Gradually, their lands were taken and their sacred sites desecrated. What was left was destroyed or taken away by archeologists and anthropologists as they sought to dig up their past. Resultantly, the people cannot engage in their traditional religious practices.

Besides, as intermarriages rise, the newer generations will be isolated from these practices hence increasing the likelihood of them dying altogether. Observing and interacting with these people gives the feeling that they feel that they have lost their culture and identity but have no way of addressing or reversing their fate. It is only through events like the Thunderbird American Indian Mid-Summer Pow Wow that these people get a glimpse of what they used to be, but can never be again. Moreover, the event looked more like an entertainment festival and hence does not play a significant role in preserving the culture and practices of the American Indians. Therefore, it is evident that modernity has dealt a huge blow to the population. To preserve the little that is left, the laws that exist to protect these people must be strictly enforced. Their sacred sites and objects must also be protected by the law. Finally, since these have already lost their past, where they were comfortable, the government should empower them to survive and thrive in the modern environment.

References

Brown, R. A., Dickerson, D. L., & D'Amico, E. J. (2016). Cultural identity among urban American Indian/Alaska Native youth: Implications for alcohol and drug use. Prevention Science, 17(7), 852-861. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11121-016-0680-1

Cote, C. (2016). Indigenizing" food sovereignty. Revitalizing Indigenous food practices and ecological knowledges in Canada and the United States. Humanities, 5(3), 57. Retrieved from https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0787/5/3/57

Meza, N. (2015). Indian education: Maintaining tribal sovereignty through Native American culture and language preservation. BYU Educ. & LJ, 353. Retrieved from https://heinonline.org/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/byuelj2015&section=15

National Archives. (2016, August 15). American Indian Urban Relocation. Retrieved from National Archives: https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/indian-relocation.html

Smelser, N. J., Wilson, W. J., & Mitchell, F. (2001). Trends Among American Indians in the United States. In N. J. Smelser, W. J. Wilson, & F. Mitchell, America Becoming: Racial Trends and their Consequences (pp. 135-169). Retrieved from https://erut.pw/1574779195.pdf

Warren, S. (2015). Art, Ethnography, and Embodied Experience: Toward New Understandings of American Indian Cultures. Reviews in American History, 43(4), 580-586. Retrieved from https://muse.jhu.edu/article/604422/summary