Second Language Acquisition: Learning a New Language for Communication - Essay Sample

Introduction

Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is the process through which an individual, whether an adult or a child, can learn other languages other than their First Language (L1). Upon the acquisition of the Second Language (L2), an individual should gain sufficient mastery to communicate with the speakers of that language. After some time also, they should be able to communicate their thoughts in the acceptable grammatical form (syntax) besides expressing ideas that dominate new sounds (phonology). Researchers have introduced several theories and approaches of SLA as they tried to explain processes that underpin the learning of L2 (Chen, 2018). Some of them are Cognitive Approach, Monitor Theory, and Interlanguage Theory. Other aspects that explain SLA, according to Chen (2018), are Error Analysis, Universal Grammar, Corpus Linguistics, and Contrastive Linguistics Hypotheses. Since Universal Grammar ceases to exist in adulthood, learners of L2 should use multimedia communication channels to reinforce foreign language instructions and boost the innate ability to learn languages.

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Behaviorist Theory, Interactionist Theory and Cognitive Limitations in SLA

Interactionist Theory and Behaviorist Theory helps understand challenges that adult second language learners face when acquiring the L2. The theoretical foundations of these models, to be specific, offers more insights into age constraints that underpin SLA during adulthood. Behaviorist theory (imitation) explains second language acquisition focusing on stimulus, reinforcement, and response as the main elements (Klein & Perdue, 1997). Behaviorists hypothesized that the three aspects enable children to learn different languages (Klein & Perdue, 1997). Children as well, learn language by postulating imitation and associations, among other essential processes (Klein & Perdue, 1997). In short, behaviorists believe that language is a learned behavior that anyone can acquire through practice, imitation, and operant conditioning.

Interactionist theory, on the other hand, states that mothers and other caregivers influence the process of language acquisition in infants (Klein & Perdue, 1997). During social interactions with caregivers, children use their innate capacities to facilitate language acquisition. In this view, interactionists study how caregivers, such as mothers, use language to modify children's natural capacities and assist them in communication (Klein & Perdue, 1997). So, the difference between the two theoretical models is that the interactionist theory studies language acquisition as a biological and social aspect. Behaviorist theory, in contrast, study it as a learned behavior.

The theoretical foundations of the two models suggest that a decrease in memory levels among adults limits the acquisition of L2 as it makes it challenging for an individual to memorize words on a foreign language. Often, an individual's ability to memorize decrease with an increase in age, a situation which limits learning when acquiring L2 grammar and lexicon. Adults acquire L2 through conscious learning, unlike in children where the process is unconscious. In this view, adults are more likely to forget the rules of the target language or may not pay attention to them at all. Schmidt (1990) said that L2 learning is mostly unconscious, and it is through this feature that a person can acquire a second language.

Errors among second language learners, according to Schmidt (1990), occur since such people acquire L2 through conscious learning. This situation makes it difficult for L2 learners to produce the correct form of the target language and use it appropriately. The interactionist theory posits that caregivers modify several cognitive aspects of children during social interactions to enable them to communicate (Klein & Perdue, 1997). In this view, adult learners of L2 may not produce correct forms of subsequent languages since language comprehension may be challenging if they have a short memory. However, Long (1981) refuted the basics of this theory by arguing that SLA is possible with neither the modification of interaction nor input. The notion of consciousness in SLA, according to Schmidt (1990), ties together concepts like parallel vs. serial processing, automatic vs. control processing, attention, and short term memory. In this regard, adult speakers of L2 would have control processing while children would have automated processing in the production of the L2. Slabakova (2009) said there is a direct correlation between age and the proficiency of using L2. The point in this context is that cognitive limitations that arise as a result of the learner's age pose challenges to learners of L2.

Universal Grammar, Functional Approach and Affective Limitations to SLA

Universal Grammar (UG) refers to the innate and biological language faculty in human beings. The theory of UG posits that this language faculty limit how people operate, besides their grammars, and even their form. Researchers in the area of linguistics have argued that UG ceases to operate in adults, a phenomenon that causes challenges among L2 learners (Slabakova, 2009).

The theory of the UG further says that a person can acquire his/her L2 through both practice and conscious observation of data. Besides, adults use domain-general problems solving skills to facilitate the process of Second Language Acquisition. Cognitive abilities in adulthood, in this sense, negatively affect language learning skills since adults use general-problem solving skills. This phenomenon leads to general failure, variation in goals, and lack of success. These factors, according to Slabakova (2009), distinguishes SLA from first language acquisition.

Slabakova (2009) said affective factors play a crucial role in SLA among adults, but they are not relevant to language development in children. Some of these affective factors are attitudes, motivation, aptitude, socialization, and personality traits (Slabakova, 2009). The fact that these affective factors can limit SLA suggests that self-concept is necessary for adult L2 learners. The reason is that it has a direct impact on a person's level of motivation to learn a second language. Affective factors, as well, can make L2 learners lose confidence in the target language, which, in turn, becomes a barrier to SLA.

White (1990) argued that researchers had explained the difficulties that L2 learners face from a perspective UG, which is not available to adults learning the second language. The proponents of this view, according to White (1990), have argued that the mechanism of learning L2 in adults is radically different from those that underpin L1 acquisition. In this regard, the point is that UG, which does not exist among adult L2 learners, consists of abstract but crucial principles that constraint knowledge of the language. As such, second language learners do not succeed since they cannot induce the relevant properties of the grammar.

Crosthwaite and Jee (2020) argued that the absence of UG among adult learners of L2 leads to the production of common errors. The authors studied foreign vs. heritage SLA of Korean reference, and they found that learners of L2 are more likely to produce over the explicit reference (Crosthwaite & Jee, 2000). This point provides evidence to support arguments that difficulties that learners of L2 encounter are as a result of the absence of UG. Accordingly, the approach of UG is essential in explaining the challenges facing L2 learners as it recognizes that the innate aspect limit grammars and, more importantly, their form. The constraints, to be specific, are from the perspective of phonological, syntactic, and semantic domains. Klein (1986) corroborated that developmental errors limits SLA and its constraints on their level of proficiency. Typically, these developmental errors are common among all L2 learners.

However, research has demonstrated that there is no guarantee that the brain can activate the latent structure of UG (Selinker, 1972). There is also no guarantee that learning L2 can prove successful since meaning UG limits the process of SLA. In this view, the assumption is that successful SLA can only occur upon reactivation of latent language structure (Zafar, 2009).

The theoretical foundation of the functional approach to SLA entirely relies on the view of language as social interaction. Functional grammar, according to this theory, helps foreign or L2 to attain grammatical accuracy. This theory proposes that a language is a tool that one can best understand its structures by analyzing the functions that they perform. In this perspective, functional grammar is essential since, unlike UG, it focuses on rules that govern social interaction. Some of these aspects are the rules of phonology, syntax, and semantics. A set of functional categories, including negation phrase, tense phase, and aspect phase, according to Slabakova (2009), constitute a vital part of the narrow syntax.

From the perspective of the functional approach, L2 learners experience significant challenges in learning the lexicon. This difficulty is more apparent when one views the functional lexicon as a vital part of the syntax (Swain & Lapkin, 1995). From my past language learning experiences, I have noted that the functional approach to SLA influences grammatical accuracy. I have ever learned French a few years ago as a way to cope with the discourse of modern civilization and also have a cross-cultural understanding of other languages. Communication channels like multimedia influenced my accuracy of the L2. Here, the theory of functional approach to foreign language instruction influenced how I acquired my SLA.

Recommendations on How to Overcome Challenges Facing L2 Learners

Learners of L2 should develop an interest in acquiring other languages and also make the process enjoyable. The two aspects are vital to success in linguistics as it increases motivation to learn second and subsequent languages. Of great importance is that learners of L2 should have mentors proficient in their target languages to guide them. Alternatively, they might involve a linguistics professional to guide them as they learn their L2. Such a person would be finding ways to motivate learners of L2 through new strategies and insights that consider the age of the learner. A person from the target language would be adjusting strategies as the learners develop in their acquisition from an initial state to a higher level of proficiency. This approach helps reduce language anxiety during the first stage of the learning process.

Memorizing words of the target language is a crucial challenge that learners of L2 face. As such, learners should engage in activities that will shape the memorization of learning. Again, learners need to develop a schedule for daily practice to enable them to master the essential words of the target language. Of great importance is that they should write down a procedure that outlines what they are going to learn concerning their second language. This aspect will enhance learner's capability not only to memorize new words but also to practice them.

References

Chen, M. (2018). A data-driven critical review of second language acquisition in the past 30 years. Publications, 6(3), 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/publications6030033

Crosthwaite, P., & Jee, M. J. (2020). Referential movement in L2 vs. heritage Korean. Referring to a Second Language, 75-99. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429263972-5

Klein, W., & Perdue, C. (1997). The Basic Variety (or: Couldn't natural languages be much simpler?). Second Language Research, 13(4), 301-347. https://doi.org/10.1191/026765897666879396

Klein, W. (1986). Second language...