Research Paper on Genetic Manipulation in Human DNA

Many people around the world are facing various types of disorders. The human Deoxyribonucleic acid contributes to the phenotypic trait of human beings. Doctors continue to conduct a number of researches to understand the cause of the anomalies within the body systems of human beings. DNA has contributed to different abnormalities around the world. The researchers have come up with various techniques to overcome the disorders in the DNA through genetic engineering. In this paper, it is essential to look at the different types of genetic manipulation. In addition, it is crucial to discuss ethics in genetic engineering.

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Introduction to Genetic Engineering

Scientists have been doing researches to ensure that they combat diseases which have caused suffering to the world. Genetic engineering is one of the methods that researchers are using to fight body disorders. Genetic engineering or genetic manipulation is the process whereby a hybrid DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) sequence is recombined with another DNA from different sources which are then reproduced to other more DNA with desirable characteristics. Through genetic modification, the DNA is manipulated to improve the phenotypes of the organism (Cotrim and Bruce, Baum, 120).

The DNA is made of nucleotides that are characterized by a nitrogen base. The nitrogen bases have four different modifications which include Adenine (A) thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). The bases are helpful in coding the genes. Scientists, remove a whole region of DNA, change, or add a copy of a gene or a whole region of a base pair, change. Additionally, researchers can also extract a DNA from another and combine it with another DNA of an individual (Beamer, 732). The genetic modification may be of two types; somatic gene modification and germ-line modification.

Genetic Human Germ-Line Engineering

The world population has received massive threats from incurable diseases. Scientists are conducting a number of experiments to find some long lasting proactive ways of fighting the disease. One of the common practices the alteration of genes to understand how possible it could be to overcome replication of the genes. Moreover, Scientists are able to change the genome of an individual to and make it inheritable The technique by altering the reproductive cells. The first experiment on the human germ line began with Chinese students who used a genetic approach called CRISPR/ Cas9. Tin their experiment they used embryos that were non-viable, they single celled, and they contained extra set off chromosomes. However, the experiment was not successful. Another group of scientists in china tried the same experiment, and they found similar results but the genes were able to successfully integrate. However, they genes did not produce the expected mutations (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 1). CRISPR/ Cas9 proved that it has an impact on the genetic modification.

CRISPR/Cas9

This type of approach involves manipulating the reproductive genes into inheritable characteristics. The process is successful when an enzyme called CRISPR/ Cas9. The bacteria immune systems as is the best source of the enzyme. CRISPR is a replicated a sequence of an RNA so that it is able to match with the required modifications. CRISPR is able to combine with an enzyme called Cas9 and form CRISPR/ Cas9 combination that is able to remove the introns from the RNA and join combine them with extrons. Just before the process of repairing in the RNA is complete scientist put DNA that forms a completely new form of DNA. Through the germ-line technology, researchers are able to understand the consequences of removing different extrons and introns and a result they are able to identify the purposes of the of the DNA fragments. In addition, the innovation enables the scholars to know which sequences can undergo alteration and which ones should not (Araki, 2)

Application of CRISPR/ Cas9

Inheritable diseases have increased the danger to most of the world population. Scientists have been conducting a number of experiments to curb the threats of the illnesses to the population to prevent them from becoming pandemic in the future. According to Cotrim and Bruce, Baum, (120), the use of CRISPR/ Cas9 mechanism is the hope for most of the researchers. They have made various clinical trials by modifying the DNA of spermatogonia stem cells. The method could be helpful since it can decrease the chances of future generations from being exposed to the inherent disorders and incurable illnesses. Cancer patients will be undergoing DNA modifications using the CRISPR/ Cas so the conditions do not undergo mutations that may be passed to the next generation and as a result, the approach would help in the elimination of cancer which has become a deadly illness around the world. Additionally, through a The Berlin Patient experiment, CCR5 genes found on the surface of the white blood cells that are the main target of the HIV virus, are mutated so that so that they assume resisting characteristics. Also, the CCR5 can be deactivated in the embryos, the process would reduce the chances of the net generations from b getting the HIV infections (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 1).

In addition, the world is changing mode and often people are looking for better and advanced mechanisms to remain sustainable. The same case is applying to the fact that people are choosing partners with some distinguishable characteristics so that, the phenotypic traits pas to their generations. According to Araki, (2) Scientists have advanced a eugenic modification that can help solve the problem. The implementation of this approach will enable people to choose the best traits that their children should assume they are born. Additionally, the process will not only modify the existing traits but also enhance the formation of the new traits completely independent from the inheritable ones.

Gene Therapy

Human bodies are characterized by disorders. Most of the body malfunctions are caused by DNA quality or sequencing. Researchers are using Genetic therapy intelligence to remedy the DNA sequence of the patients the manufactured drugs. The first experiment on the Human gene transfer was Martin Cline in 1980, but the trial became successful after a while, other researchers have continued to research more on the topic and it has born fruits after in treating various diseases. The approach has become able the physicians to treat the disorders from their source. The genetic materials are inserted into the cells to replace the faulty genesis or to add some missing traits to traits to the genes. In case the protein is not available or has a disorder, the technique is able to introduce a new copy of genes to restore primary properties and role of the protein.

Genetic therapy if not done using the right procedures it can easily it easily fail. Scientists must find the best ways to deliver genes to target cells. When the genes are inserted directly in the cells, usually they fail to function. The use of vectors has become a more reliable and successful method when engineered to convey the genes. Scientists use, disease-free viruses help in carrying the new genes by infecting the cells. The method of inserting the genes is also is a fundamental issue. The vectors are inserted into the body tissues using two processes which include; injection or intravenous method and they are afterward taken up by the cells. On the other hand, the health practitioners may choose to remove the cells from the body of the patients and expose them into the vector in a proper functioning lab setting. Afterward the cells are put back into the body of the recipient. The body must be able to be in command of the new genes. In case the experiment is successful the person is likely to respond positively to the experiment. The vector will deliver the new genes and the cell will start functioning well.

Application of Gene Therapy

Medical practitioners have been conducting various experiments on how to fight against the rampant spread of the recurring diseases. The use of gene therapy has been helpful in the fight against the disorders such as cancer and other inherent conditions. The tumor cells that cause cancer, varied from form other normal cells in the body, the physicians use the molecular bio-techniques to insert a gene into the cells . The genes then replicate inside the cells of tumor cells to produce new RNA. The new products inhibit the s spread of the tumor cells. Unlike the traditional methods of treating cancer that have major body side effects, the gene therapy are has not healthy implications. Therefore, the method has no harmful effects on the normal cells. In addition, researchers continue to make the advancement researcher on the treatment of leukemia. If the gene technology will be capable to eliminate to kill the tumor cells, it I will save many lives are claimed by cancer (Araki, 2)

In addition, some disorders such as albinism, color blindness, and s heart diseases are caused by faulty genes. The obsolete methods still do not show the main cause of the Disorder. Scientists are doing research to find out whether there could be an abnormality in the genetic traits. Through the transfer of the normal genes into the patients' infected cells that express to produce the aimed products and that help to eliminate the abnormal cells.

Ethical Issues in Genetic Engineering in Human DNA

The issue of germ-line technology and gene therapy has mooted a public debate especially among the ethics and the researchers. Most of the stakeholders to believe that It is upon the people to decide whether or not use the germ-line technology. However, most countries have outlaws germ-line editing. However, some countries such as the US, UK, and China are putting efforts to see that of the genome approach can be practiced under the stipulated regulatory system. (Araki, 2). The major Issues of ethical concern include:

Safety

Mistakes in experiments often lead to faulty results. Most of the side effects of the wrong experiment may be permanent especially if they were performed to an embryo. The ethicists argue that however, beneficial the approaches it does not justify the need to take the risk. Some scientists argue that pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PDG) and invitro -fertilization have more benefits than genome editing. However, others argue that if they are guaranteed safety then the regulation should be applied (Araki, 2)

Informed Concept

Information is very vital when people are making a decision. Ethicists believe that the changes in obtaining the informed are minimal when using germ-line technology. They argue that embryo and fetus are denied a chance to make their own decision but instead, parents make decisions on their behalf.

Work Cited

Araki, Motoko, and Tetsuya Ishii. "International regulatory landscape and integration of corrective genome editing into in vitro fertilization." Reproductive biology and endocrinology12.1 (2014): 108.

Beamer, Laura Curr. "Ethics and genetics: Examining a crossroads in nursing through a case study." Clinical journal of oncology nursing 21.6 (2017): 730-737.

Cotrim, Ana P., and Bruce J. Baum. "Gene therapy: some history, applications, problems, and prospects." Toxicologic pathology 36.1 (2008): 97-103.

International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium. "Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome." Nature409.6822 (2001): 860.

Lanphier, Edward, et al. "Don't edit the human germ line." Nature News 519.7544 (2015): 410.

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Human genome editing: science, ethics, and governance. National Academies Press, 2017.