Essay Sample on Self-Discrepancy Theory (SDT) and Its Effect on the Body Image

Introduction

The principle captured in the self-discrepancy theory is that; there are consequences that arise when individuals compare one self-state to another self-state and find that a discrepancy exists between the two (Vartanian 711). People's self can be divided into three domains: the 'actual' self, which is a reflection of an individual's perception of his or her own attributes; the 'ideal' self, points to the attributes that an individual aspires to possess; and the 'ought' self, denotes the attributes that an individual believes that he or she has an obligation to possess (Vartanian 711). The SDT notes that the 'selves' that have been identified are normally conceptualized from an individual's own perspective, or their significant others (parents, siblings, spouses, and friends).

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SDT clearly defines that there are consequences that arises when after comparison of different states, an individual find that there is a discrepancy that exists between the two. These are specific emotional consequences depending on the discrepancy. If there is a perceiving discrepancy between the 'actual' self, and 'ought' self, the result will be agitation-related emotions such as anxiety and guilt (Vartanian 711). The reason for this is that an individual feel like he or she has violated some standards. To deal with these emotional responses individuals can start engaging in behaviors, or activities that they feel will reduce these discrepancies such as drug abuse.

Over the years, there have been modifications of SDT in the context of expansion of the potential domains to the 'self' to include: 'can self,' 'feared self,' and 'future self' (Vartanian 712). For instance, in the 'future self,' it illustrates an individual's perceptions of what he or she might be, while the 'feared self,' shows the individual qualities that a person does not want to possess but fears that he or she might possess them already. It may force an individual to be pre-occupied in eliminating the undesirable state through undertaking activities such as for an adolescent girl, starving herself to achieve the 'ideal' body size of being slim as glorified by the media, or for a young man taking steroids and spending hours working out in the gym to get that lean body (Vartanian 712).

The self-discrepancy theory is applicable in the discussions of body image as it identifies the effect of specific standards of attractiveness on people in the society. In a majority of cultures, and what is promoted in the media is that a beautiful woman should have a slim body, and a man requires to have a lean and muscular body to be considered as sexually attractive. However, achieving these standards is unrealistic for a majority of people in the society unless, they go to extreme measures such as self-starvation for women, and taking steroids for men, which could have a negative impact on their overall health (Vartanian 712). Others are willing to undergo a cosmetic surgery procedure to correct a body feature that they feel makes them fail to achieve the ideal beauty that they seek. For those that are unable to 'correct' their self-discrepancies experience emotional consequences such as anxiety, depression, and anger issues. To deal with these problems there are people who will engage in body harming activities such as drug abuse (Vartanian 712).

Objectification Theory

Objectification means making or treating something, or someone that cannot be classified as an object to become an object that can be used in a certain manner (such as for sexual gratification), manipulated, controlled, and only known, or recognized through its physical properties (Calogero 574). An objectified body is seen as malleable, measurable, and controllable by other people (Calogero 574). According to Philosopher Martha Nussbaum, there are seven qualities that portray the common attitudes and behaviors that are applied to people who are being objectified.

As one can easily tell, all of these qualities that were identified by Nussbaum illustrate the sexual objectification of women (Calogero 574). The objectification theory provides an explanation of the negative consequences that arise when the society equates women with their bodies.

Sexual Objectification

In this theory, it purports that that cultural practices particularly in the Westernized societies create opportunities for the female body to be placed on public display, and criticized in relation to the way an 'ideal' woman should look like in terms of physical appearance. Sexual objectification in this case refers to how a woman is considered as a collection of sexual parts, particularly for men (Calogero 578). They are not looked at in terms of their unique personality, behaviors, or even contributions to the society but only exist as sexual bodies. An important point to note is that the experiences of sexual objectification occur and exist outside the women's control. There are different ways that sexual objectification of women is conducted on a daily basis such as: gazing at women's bodies as they pass, making comments about women's bodies, whistling at women, taking photographs of the 'sexual' parts of women (breasts, thighs, and buttocks) as they pass, sexual harassment at work, and sexual violence against women (Calogero 579).

There are two areas where sexual objectification is practiced in the society: interpersonal and media encounters. Interpersonal encounters occur when women are dealing with people they are familiar with such as their family members, friends, spouses, colleagues at work and other acquaintances (Calogero 580). It may be a simple act such as comment, or even touching in a manner that objectifies the targeted individual. On the other hand, media encounters of sexual objectification take place in: prime time programs, sports programs, television commercials, video games, magazines, mobile phone applications, and cartoons (Calogero 580). They range from sexual gazing, eroticized images or program scenes to sexual violence against women.

The sexual objectification that women, especially young girls encounter on a regular basis in most cases leads them to turn it on themselves. How? A majority of women begin to view and treat themselves as objects that are constantly evaluated based on their physical appearance alone. They may begin to perceive, or even want men, or people that they are sexually attracted to (people that they feel matter and they take their opinions seriously) to ogle or whistle at them when they are passing by them (Calogero 580). They feel that such actions mean that they are beautiful according to the set social standards.

Self-Objectification

Self-objectification is defined as an individual, in this case a woman, adopting a third-person perspective on the 'self,' as opposed to having a first-person perspective. It leads to a majority of women viewing themselves as sexual objects, and therefore monitor themselves on a regular basis to maintain a particular standard as set by the society (Calogero 582). This chronic body monitoring is known as or referred to as self-surveillance. Self-objectification in women, especially when they feel they are not achieving the specific body standards leads to the following negative consequences: body shame, appearance and safety anxiety, reduced concentration to important tasks, self-starvation, and mental health risks such as depression, and sexual dysfunction (Calogero 584).

Social Cognitive Theory

Existence of historical or developmental factors such as: the created social standards, interpersonal experiences, physical characteristics, and attributes that are associated with personality influence how an individual think, and feel about their bodies. Such factors determine whether a person's body image will be developed in a positive, or negative manner. These factors that influence an individual's body image normally unfold as a person interacts with his or her environment (Hendy, et al. 557). They normally occur during physical, social, cognitive, and emotional developmental stages. For instance, the social standards are created, and maintained by the media.

The inter-experiences that an individual face in relation to his or her body image are mainly verbal and non-verbal communication that a person has with their family members, friends, peers and strangers. Verbal communication can be a comment that a family makes on an individual in relation to his or her body. For instance, stating that an individual should not wear shorts or a short skirt because he or she has skinny legs. It may influence an individual not to wear shorts because he or she is conscious of his or her skinny legs. Non-verbal communication includes ogling, indecent touching of an individual, or whistling as an individual pass by (Hendy, et al. 559). The physical characteristics normally affect an individual's body image because how an individual is perceived by others determines how closely he or she meets societal standards. The personality factors that have an impact on an individual's body image: self-esteem, public self-consciousness, perfectionism, and the need for social approval. The figure below illustrates the cognitive-behavioral model of body image development.

Figure 1: Cognitive-Behavioral Model on Body Image

Social Comparison Theory

This theory is used as a framework to illustrate how media and peer messages influence an individual's perception of his or her body. According to Festinger, in social comparison theory, it provides the suggestion that people process social information by comparing themselves with others and establishing their similarities and differences (Krayer, et al. 895). The resulting comparison appraisals are used to deflect threats, learn from others, and evaluate or determine one's standing in the social setting. Festinger pointed out social comparison theory focuses on the need for humans to self-evaluate. For people to be in the position where they can evaluate themselves, they will need to compare themselves with other people (Krayer, et al. 898). Festinger notes this should not be considered as a passive action as people actively engage in the process of comparison in different platforms such as the traditional media, social media, and face-to-face comparisons (Krayer, et al. 902). For instance, people perceive that the images that are posted by others on their social media pages su...