Theories of Human Growth and Development Essay Example

Introduction

Growth and development are words that are used interchangeably but have different meanings. They are both dynamic processes that happen in an individual's life. Extension refers to the physical changes in a body and can be measured quantitatively. The indicators of growth are height, dentition, bone size and weight. The rate at which growth happens varies between different stages of growth and development. The growth rate is very swift during the neonatal, prenatal, infancy and adolescent but very slow during childhood. In adulthood, the increase is very minimal. Growth takes place in the first 20 years of an individual ("Human Growth and Development Theories | Adolescence | Metaphysics Of Mind," 2018).

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Development, on the other hand, refers to the rise and increase in how complex the functions and skills of an individual become. It refers to the ability and expertise of a person to be able to adapt to their environment (Gormly & Brodzinsky, 1997). Development means the behavior part of growth. Progress, unlike growth it keeps on going in a person's life and has no time limit. Both growth and development are interrelated and interdependent; none can happen without the other.

Psychologists, sociologist and other scientists have studied and done a lot of research in matters about growth and the lifespan of individuals. They all have conclusions on how growth and development take place in human beings. They all agree that human development takes place in three perspectives; social, cognitive and physical. The physical aspect of growth deals with puberty, height, shape, and weight. The cognitive aspect deals with memory, the capability to think and decision making. Lastly, the social part deals with behaviors and how changes in variables like behavior are affected by a person's relationship and surroundings. There are so many theories that discuss human growth and development, but there are three main theories the psychosexual theory by Sigmund Freud, psychosocial theory by Erik Erickson and cognitive theory by Jean Piaget.

Theories of human development

Freud's psychosexual development theory- the theory of psychosexual development is one of the most controversial yet very known methods of construction. Freud came up with stages of psychosexual development in a person. He suggested that human evolution was centered on the erogenous zone of a person ("Freud's Psychosexual Development in Psychology 101 at AllPsych Online | AllPsych", 2018). According to him the stages of development were either supposed to be successful or a failure. A thriving scene meant that a person was able to complete one step and proceed to the other while failure meant that a person was fixated in one stage and could not be able to move to the next stage. Freud came up with five stages of psychosexual development that he believed human beings pass through.

The first stage was the oral stage, the age from birth to 18 months. In this stage the child gratification or focus is in the mouth, that's where the child gets all the pleasure by suckling. Too much or less of it can lead to a child being fixated on this stage. Fixation reflects in the Childs personality later in life. Children who are fixated at this stage tend to be preoccupied with oral activities like eating nails, overeating, and biting. Evidence of oral stage fixation in adulthood is drinking and smoking. The personality effect of oral fixation is gullible, over-dependent on others permanent followers ("Freud's Psychosexual Development in Psychology 101 at AllPsych Online | AllPsych", 2018).

The next stage in Sigmund's theory is the anal stage. This is the stage that happens between 18 months and three years. The point of gratification in this stage is the anus; the child either retains or releases feces. It is the stage also known as the toilet training stage. The parents and the society teach the child to be able to manage anal stimulation. Children that are not stopped from releasing personality wise are very generous, and they are natural givers. They also are very disorganized and messy. On the other hand, those that retain their feces are very organized, have control and are very clean. The obsessive-compulsive disorder is characterized by individuals who were anal retainers ("Freud's Psychosexual Development in Psychology 101 at AllPsych Online | AllPsych", 2018).

The third stage is the phallic stage; it happens between the ages of three years to six years. Gratification at this stage is through the genitals. It is also the discovery stage. According to Freud at this stage boys develop sexual feelings toward their mothers and see their fathers as competition. Oedipus complex is discovered and felt in this stage. Boys are afraid that if their fathers know about their feelings, they might punish them. Fixation in this stage according to Freud it could lead to sexual deviances brought about by either overindulgence or lack of it. Weak sexes and confused sexual identity is derived from the phallic stage.

The fourth stage is the latency stage which happens between the ages of six and puberty. At this stage, sexual urges are no felt, and children play with their fellow children regardless of their sex. Their energy is directed towards intellectual and physical activities. The final stage is the genital stage that happens from puberty onwards. The suppressed sexual desires are awakened. The focus of gratification is their genitals and feelings are directed to the opposite sex peers. They also develop skills to help them cope with the environment.

Erickson stages of psychosocial development

Erik Erickson took the stages brought forth by Freud and modified them to eight stages that he named psychosocial stages. He also discussed the implications of culture on development. He argued that some cultures might need to adjust the scenes to fit their cultural requirements' and needs. His emphasis was on ego and that it contributed to development by enhancing skills, ideas, and attitudes with every developmental stage. The mastering of this attributes according to Erickson is crucial since it helps children become responsible and successful thus contributing to society. In his stages of development, each step has a divergence that the child must overcome to be able to develop correctly.

His first stage was trust and mistrust which happened between the infancy stages to twelve months. Children during this stage learn how to trust adults; they are solely dependent on their caregivers. The responsiveness and responsibility of the baby need by the caregivers help baby develop trust. Responsive caregivers make the child see the world as safe and predictable while unresponsive ones breed mistrust, anxiety, and fear. Children grow up mistrusting people even in adulthood. When their needs are met and responded to, they develop a sense of security and trust.

The next stage is autonomy vs. shame this happens from 1 year to 3 years. At this stage, the children start to explore the world around them. They learn that by controlling their actions, individual objects in the environment can be obtained. They can show interest and preference for things like toys. The child works towards gaining independence by solving doubt, shame and autonomous. When denied the chance for autonomy, they end up having low self-esteem, uncertainties, and shame feeling. The next stage is initiative vs. guilt the age between 3years to 6 years. Children interact with their peers and should be able to start activities and take control of their environment. They learn to accomplish their goals and plan they develop a sense of responsibility. When parents let their children explore their limits and support them, initiative happens. When an effort is suppressed, they feel guilty ("Theories of Human Development | Boundless Psychology," 2018).

The other stage is industrial vs. inferiority, happens at the age of six years and 12 years. Children start to compare their achievements with those of their peers. Its either they develop a sense of accomplishment or inferiority depending on how they differentiate their performances with others. Inferiority complex extends at this stage if they cannot relate with others appropriately. The fifth stage is the identity vs. role confusion which takes place between the ages of 12-18 years. They are adolescent that struggle with identity. At this stage, they are either independent with strong personalities, or they get confused with their roles and status.

The sixth stage is the intimacy vs. isolation stage between ages 20 -40 years. At this stage, depending on their successful transition they can maintain relationships or unable to. Strong sense of self is essential for one to be able to keep a relationship. Those that do not develop strong self-concept always feel isolated. The seventh stage is generativity vs. stagnation the ages between 40 and 60 years ("Theories of Human Development | Boundless Psychology," 2018). At this stage, the adults are considered very active and find their work line while contributing to other people's development. People give birth and nurture children and engage in productive work. Those that do not manage to grasp their tasks feel stagnated in their lives. The last stage is integrity vs. despair, the age of 60 onwards to end of life. People in this life reflect in their lives and depending on whether they are satisfied with their achievements on not there is either bound to feel guilty or integrity for their accomplishments or lack of it.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development

His philosophy was mostly centered towards thinking and its relation to child development. He argued that children develop knowledge by distorting the world around them. He came up with four stages of cognitive development. The first Stage was the sensory-motor that takes place between 0-2years. The child explores through the motor and sensory contact they use all their five senses and develop permanence in objects. They develop imitation at this stage. The next step is the preoperational stage at the age of 2 -6 years. They use symbols and images to represent words, but their reasoning is not logic. They are self-centered at this stage and can pretend. The third stage is the concrete operational stage that happens at the age of 7-12 years. The children can understand conversations and can think logically about specific objects and can calculate. The last step is formal operational between ages 12 to adulthood. They can think logically, and their reasoning is hypothetical ("Theories of Human Development | Boundless Psychology," 2018).

References

Freud's Psychosexual Development in Psychology 101 at AllPsych Online | AllPsych. (2018). Retrieved from https://allpsych.com/psychology101/sexual_development/

Gormly, A., & Brodzinsky, D. (1997). Lifespan human development. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Human Growth and Development Theories | Adolescence | Metaphysics Of Mind. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.scribd.com/doc/13135339/Human-Growth-and-Development-Theories

Theories of Human Development | Boundless Psychology. (2018). Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/theories-of-human-development/