Essay Sample on Microcontrollers: Specialized Computers for Specific Purposes

Introduction

A microcontroller is also referred to as a computer. All computers have one thing in common- the CPU (Central Processing Unit). The CPU in a computer is very useful in executing programs displayed on a particular page. It also has a RAM or random access memory and ROM ( read-only memory), and they are used in storing of variables. These two factors are instrumental in running various programs. As pointed out by Kumar, microcontrollers are also specialized computers that serve a specific purpose. Various characteristics define microcontrollers. Thus, if a computer has these characteristics, then it can be called a microcontroller.

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According to Kumar, a microcontroller is embedded in other devices to enhance controlling of the actions or features of the products. Therefore, microcontrollers can also be referred to as embedded controllers. In other words, microcontrollers are assigned to a specific task, and they run a particular program, which is stored in the ROM of the machine. As a result, they are said to have a dedicated input device, which often has a small LCD or LED for the display. Through this, microcontrollers can control devices, through sending signals to various components of the device. Besides, they minimize the size of the equipment and reduce operational costs as possible. Microcontrollers are very useful, increasing the accuracy of the steady-state by lowering its error. As this increases, it improves the stability of the devices. Microcontrollers are also effective in reducing the unwanted offsets that are produced in the system. Besides, it is effective in reducing the noisy signals controlled produced in the system as well as speeding up the slowed response in the overdamped system.

Considering microcontrollers in the engine of the cars, it has to operate in extreme temperatures that cannot be handled by the normal temperatures. However, different controllers worked at different temperatures depending on the location. For instance, a car in Alaska can operate at - 30 degrees while that in Nevada mostly operates at 120 degrees. Besides, the actual processors that enhance the implementing of the microcontroller vary widely. In products that have low demand on the CPU, the price is the major consideration, and in such cases, manufacturers must apply dedicated microcontroller chips. Arguably, the microcontroller chips with a low end have 20 bytes of RAM and 1000 bytes of ROM (Kumar). Precisely, microcontrollers have been used in every household for many decades. Currently, each home uses an estimate of 20 microcontrollers, meaning that above 2 billion microcontrollers are produced every year. Besides, various nations are developing every day, and this comes along with the high demand for microcontrollers. Having an ability to control most of the electronic gadget, it is used every day right from car brakes to the washing machines.

History of Microcontrollers

The use of microcontrollers started in 1970 and 1971, as Intel was trying to invent the fastest I coprocessor in the world. This was the Texas Instrument by Gary Boone, which was designed by integrating a circuit chip that was holding all the necessary circuits to form a calculator. However, both the keypad and the display of this device were not incorporated. As a result, it was not ordinary. Surprisingly, it had an exceptional breakthrough in communication and electronics fields, hence given "TMS1802NC" as a mundane name. It also had 5000 transistors, which provided 128 access memory bits and 3000 program memory bits. These enabled it to perform a variety of functions (Kumar).

Various businesses at Texas become custom businesses since the manufacturers in companies like desktop calculators came to Texas Instrument (TI) with specific requirements. The TI changed to the specifications to various chipsets, with aims of executing or implementing specifications for popular organizations like Olympia, Canon, and Olivetti. This was an achievement that the TI was able to provide multiple compressing services. , and the business was very effective. During the period, Gary Boone was with only a few numbers of people who were doing extensive research within the country as well as flying to few countries like Italy, Japan, and other countries; to understand and work on the needs of the customers. Since their projects were all successful, there was significant satisfaction with the customers and increased demand for the projects.

Texas had a common rule of one riot one ranger. This meant that one engineer should be assigned to one chip. Since the Texas instrument had about 20 design engineers, they were able to handle three or four of the projects, and each took almost six months. Therefore, business capacity was achieved by taking the number of engineers and dividing it with the number of chips. Despite the details of the project differing, the principle of the overall operation was similar. As a result, the engineers became tired of handling these monotonous projects by working for long hours and started thinking of better ways of accomplishing the projects.

Boone, together with other engineers, thought of the matrix in the needs of their customers in one way and portions of circuitry in the other direction. Through the commonality, they discovered that having a particular byte of data storage, program storage as well as keyboard scan interface, then that would cover all their specifications. As a result, these lead to the first TMS microcontroller chip. This was very exciting; the breakthrough of the device coming from boredom, high demand as well as the vision of commonalities that were inadequately served by many chips and larger teams.

The critical aspects that had to design technology in that period were inefficient, especially when it comes to the utilizing of silicon. Various architectures were used with the idea of emphasizing regular memory and structures. Besides, they also stressed on pitch-matching to enhance the concept of a bit-slice. This was achieved by laying the four bits in the adder in the similar dimension of the physical ideas. As a result, it was possible for the best fit and match in the pitch. Despite the architecture constraint, which was the memory and the oriented pitch match, the invented microcontroller was observed as the best as compared to the previous TTL technology. It was also much efficient in the use of silicon. The use of microcontrollers became very effective at the Texas instrument between 1973 and 1974. It has further been refined with time and has been available in various configurations of ROM and RAM sizes. In 1983, over a hundred million of the devices were sold, and tremendous growth and usage of microcontrollers are witnessed year after year.

Different Types of Controllers

The microcontroller is of two main types; continuous and discontinuous controllers. The main difference between them is that the manipulated variable in the discrete values changes in the discontinuous while in the constant, it doesn't. Making a distinction is built on the bases of various states assumed by the manipulated variable. The distinction can be made from two, three, or even multi-position controllers. That to say, discontinuous controllers, operate very efficiently, through switching of the final controlling components. The main element of continuous microcontrollers is that the manipulated variable or controlled variable can work with any value in the output range of the controller. The continuous microcontrollers further operate in three other basic modes, which are; integral controllers, derivative controllers, and proportional controllers. The combination of the methods mentioned above is used to control the system to ensure that the setpoint and the process variable are equal. Thus, the microcontrollers are combined into new microcontrollers, which are; proportional and integrated, proportional and derivatives, proportional, and integral derivative controller.

Proportional Microcontrollers

All the microcontrollers have certain cases that are best suited. Therefore, there is a certain condition to be followed, since not all controllers yield good results. For the proportional controller, the following condition needs to be addressed; it should be small, meaning that it should not have a significant deviation between output and input. Besides, it should not be sudden. The proposal controllers are also known as actuating signals. Here, the production has a direct proportion to the error signal. Mathematically, the proportional controller has a direct proportion between the output and the error. This controller is very effective in lowering or reducing the steady-state error. As a result, the system becomes more stable. It is also effective in improving the slow responses of the overdamped system. However, the proportion controller has various challenges. Its existence leads to multiple offsets of the system, as well as increases the ability to overshoot the system (Arulmozhiyaly 66).

Integral Microcontrollers

Integral microcontrollers are also known as the actuating signal. Here, the output has a direct relationship with the integral of the signal errors. While analyzing it mathematically, since the integral output has a direct proportion to the error's signal integration, we use Ki is used as an integral constant, and it is known as the microcontroller gain. Besides, the integral microcontroller is also referred to as the reset microcontroller. However, the integral microcontroller has a disadvantage whereby it makes the system unstable through responding slowly towards the error produced (Arulmozhiyaly 67).

Derivative Microcontrollers

The derivative controller cannot be used alone. It is combined with other modes of controllers due to the following challenges; it cannot improve the state of steady error, leads to the production of saturation effects, and amplifies the signals of noise produced by the system. As the derivative name suggests, the output in the derivative microcontroller has a direct relationship with the divertive of the signal errors. Analyzing the derivatives micro controllers mathematically, since the output has a direct proportion to the derivative of the error, Kd is used as a proportional constant of the controller gain. Therefore, the derivative microcontroller is also referred to as a rate controller. The main advantage of the derivative microcontroller is that it increases the transient response in the system.

Proportional and Integral Microcontroller

This is the combination of the integral and proportional microcontrollers. Here, the output and the summation of both integral and proportion of error signals are equal. In analyzing this form of microcontroller mathematically, we use Kp and Ki as the integral constant and the proportional constant, respectively. This is because their output and error signals are equal. Their effectiveness and challenges are also similar to those of separate proportional and integral microcontrollers.

Proportional and Derivative Microcontroller

Proportional and Derivative microcontroller is a combination of the derivative and proportional microcontroller. The output is equal to the combination of both derivative and proportional to the error signal. By analyzing the proportional and derivative microcontroller mathematically, we use Kd and Kp, representing both proportional and divertive, respectively. This is because the output is equal to the differentiation, as well as the summation of the signal errors. The effectiveness of this form of microcontroller also combines the efficiency of the separate proportional and derivative microcontroller (Arulmozhiyaly 69).