Essay Example on Superior & Inferior Muscles of the Eye: Function & Movement

Introduction

The superior and inferior muscles of the eye include the superior rectus muscle, the inferior rectus muscle, the superior oblique muscle, and the inferior oblique muscle. They work antagonistically to each other in moving the eye in diverse directions. The superior and inferior rectus muscles are the vertical rectus muscles respectively responsible for the elevation and depression of the eye. Additionally, the oblique muscles are important for the rotation of the eye and aids the rectus muscles to perform their functions. When facing forward, the superior oblique muscle medially rotates the eye and abducts it while the inferior oblique muscle, laterally rotates and adducts the eye. With the eye adducted, the inferior oblique muscle is responsible for elevation of the eye whereas the superior oblique muscle depresses it. (Wright, 2005)

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Inhalation and Exhalation Process in Relation to Muscular Components

Inhalation and exhalation are the two steps involved in pulmonary ventilation. The process where air enters the lungs is called inhalation while exhalation process involves air leaving the lungs. The external intercostals muscles and the diaphragm are responsible during these processes. More thoracic cavity and lung space are created when the diaphragm contracts hence moving inferiorly towards the abdominal cavity. It is also created by the contraction of the external intercostals muscles which causes the ribcage to expand. This larger thoracic cavity causes the lungs to expand hence lowering the intra-alveolar pressure below the atmospheric pressure creating a pressure gradient that pushes the air into the lungs. During expiration, the thoracic cavity and lungs reduce in volume when the diaphragm and intercostals muscles relax hence increasing the interpulmonary pressure beyond the atmospheric pressure thus a pressure gradient that drives air out of the lungs. (Biga et al., n.d.)

Functions of the Pelvic Diaphragm Muscles

An observation found in ("Pelvic Floor Anatomy" n.d.) states Pelvic diaphragm as "a wide but thin muscular layer of tissue that forms the inferior border of the abdominopelvic cavity stretching from the symphysis pubis to the coccyx and from one lateral wall of the pelvic floor to the other". The major muscles found in the pelvic diaphragm include levator ani, coccygeus, piriformis, arcus tendinous of the levator ani, arcus tendinous fasciae pelvis, and obturator internus. The functions of these muscles are; to provide support for the perineal body and the pelvic viscera (done by coccygeus and both arcus tendinous's), to preserve continence of faeces (done by levator ani), and to help with external hip rotation and hip abduction if hip flexing occurs (done by piriformis and obturator internus). ("Pelvic Floor Anatomy" n.d.)

Movements at the Elbow and Muscles Involved

The forearm and the upper arm are connected by the elbow joint that is classified under hinge type synovial joint. The movements that happen at this joint are the extension and flexion movement. In extension movement, the anconeus muscle and triceps branchii are involved while in flexion, the brachialis, biceps brachii, and brachioradialis are the joints involved. (Jones, 2019)

Leg Muscles

The major leg muscles that a ballet dancer needs for her to rise up and balance on her toes include the gastrocnemius, the soleus, the plantaris, the flexor hallucis longus, the flexor digitorum longus, the tibialis posterior, and the peroneus longus. (Johnson, 2017)

Landsteiner's Rule and its Exceptions

Landsteiner (1901) stated that under normal conditions if an antigen (Ag) is present in the red blood cells of a patient aged 6 months or older the corresponding antibody (Ab) will be absent in the patient's plasma. There exist some uncommon exceptions like cases where patients lacking anti-A or anti-B antibodies experience an absence of corresponding antigens in their red blood cells. The other exception is cases showing plasma containing anti-B antibodies whereas the blood cells have the B antigens. (Andersen, 2009, p. 280)

ABO Incompatibilities Relation to Production of Hemolytic Disease of Newborns (HDN)

HDN occurs when mothers antibodies attack the Red Blood Cells (RBCs) of the newborn due to an underlying blood incompatibility between the mother and the child. HDNs due to incompatibilities of the ABO blood group are not as severe as compared to that involving the incompatibility of the Rh blood group. Reasons being that in ABO blood groups, antigens are less expressed in fetal RBCs as it would be for adults. Additionally, ABO blood group antigens require a variety of human tissues to express themselves hence lowered chances of an anti-A or anti-B binding and attacking the antigens of the fetal RBCs. (Dean, 2005)

References

Andersen, J. (2009). WEAK ATYPICAL B-LIKE CHARACTER IN THE BLOOD CELLS OF A GROUP A PERSON. Acta Pathologica Microbiologica Scandinavica, 48(3), 280-288. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1960.tb04768.x

Biga, L. M., Dawson, S., Harwell, A., Hopkins, R., Kaufmann, J., Master, M. L., ... Matern, P. (n.d.). 22.3 The Process of Breathing | Anatomy & Physiology. Retrieved May 18, 2019, from http://library.open.oregonstate.edu/aandp/chapter/22-3-the-process-of-breathing/

Dean, L. (2005). Hemolytic disease of the newborn. In Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2266/

Johnson, J. (2017, July 6). Plantar flexion: Function, anatomy, and injuries. Retrieved May 18, 2019, from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318249.php

Jones, O. (2019, January 22). The Elbow Joint. Retrieved May 18, 2019, from https://teachmeanatomy.info/upper-limb/joints/elbow-joint/

Pelvic Floor Anatomy. (n.d.). Retrieved May 18, 2019, from https://www.physio-pedia.com/Pelvic_Floor_Anatomy

Wright, K. W. (2005). Anatomy and Physiology of Eye Movements. Handbook of Pediatric Strabismus and Amblyopia, 45(3), 24-69. doi:10.1007/0-387-27925-3_2